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Exam 3 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Synapomorphy
      - All have vascular tissue
      - Cell type varies
      - Vascular architecture diverse
    - - Tracheids
        
        Annular thickenings
        
        Cooksonia
        
        Thought to be true tracheids
    - - Early vascular group
      - Created towering forests during Carboniferous
        
        responsible for removing CO2 and producing a lot of coal and oil
  - - - Poikilohydric
        
        water content changes with the moisture in the surrounding environment
        
        Equilibrate water potential through environmental source
        
        Water-storage extend
        
        I.e. found in algae, lichens, mosses, and ferns, and a few vascular plant taxa such as the pteridophytes and lycophytes
      - Stayed small to reduce demand for water
      - Live in perennially wet substrates (stream sides)
      - More derived homoiohydric
    - - Bryophytes
      - Water conducting cell
        
        No plasmodesmata (imperforate)
        
        Aid in refilling from cavitation
      - Apomorphic trait, similar function but different origin to true vascular tissue
      - No lignin
    - - Die at maturity
        
        Form long hollow strands
      - Thickened lignin walls
        
        Waterproofing
        
        Structural support
        
        Provides rigidity and woody structure
    - - Lignified tracheids
        
        Horneophyton
        
        Annular cell wall
        
        Helical cell wall
      - During Devonian,
        
        Increase in xylem content
        
        Increase in tracheid size
        
        Increase in tracheid reinforcement
      - Partially thickened
        
        Rhynia
        
        Vascular tissue not lignified
    - - Water transport only (no support)
      - lignified
      - Relatively long and wide
      - Ferns
        
        Tracheids + vessel elements in rhizomes of some species
      - Lycophytes
      - Pit membranes
    - - Lignified with ornamented walls
        
        Banded or pitted
      - Evolved likely once
        
        Tracheophytes
      - Function in both
        
        Water transport
        
        Support
      - Tapered at ends
      - rather narrow
    - - Function in water movement & support
      - Torus-margo pit membrane
        
        Move to prevent cavitation
    - - Angiosperms
        
        Homogenous pit membrane
      - Large diameter
      - Dead and maturity
      - Open, digested end walls
    - - Pit membranes are absent in perforations of mature vessel elements
      - Conductive area greater in end wall of vessel elements compared to lateral walls; tracheids are similar
      - Perforation plate morphology different than lateral-wall pitting in vessel elements; tracheid endwall similar to lateral
      - Vessel elements have a greater diameter than tracheids
      - Vessel elements are shorter than tracheids
    - - Vessels can have greater
        
        Maximum diameters
        
        Maximum lengths
      - Vessel elements may be short but the vessel can be much longer
      - yields greater conductivity in vessel elements
      - Lowers the cost (construction & transpiration)
      - Having vessels permits more fiber (hardwood vs softwood)
      - Downside is greater cavitation risk
    - - Apical meristem
      - Vacuolization
      - Elongation
      - Secondary cell wall
        
        annular
        
        Helical
        
        Reticulate
        
        Porous
      - Die at maturity
  - - - Widespread in bryophytes
      - Specialized plasmodesmata in end walls
      - Alignment along longitudinal arrays of endoplasmic microtubules*
        
        Plastids
        
        Mitochondria
        
        ER vesicles
      - Breakdown of tonoplast
        
        Mix vacuolar & cytoplasmic contents
      - Rarely some species have nuclear breakdown
      - Features common to sieve cells
    - - Transport of
        
        Photosynthate
        
        Hormones
        
        Electric signals
      - ac aka Strasburger cells
      - Gymnosperms only these
      - Earlier lineages with various types including transitional = sieve elements
      - Sieve area pores narrow
      - Uniform sieve areas
        
        Mostly on ends
        
        Lacks sieve plate
    - - Sieve plate
        
        Area with many sieve pores
        
        Usually on end wall
      - Many sieve tube elements together = sieve tube
      - Primary cell wall
      - Living protoplasts at maturity
        
        Few organelles (ER)
      - Callose & callose plugs
    - - Transport of
        
        Photosynthate
        
        Hormones
        
        Electric signals
      - Companion cell
        
        Branched plasmodesmata
        
        Vacuole
        
        Nucleus
        
        mitochondria
      - Sieve tube elements
        
        Sieve plate
        
        Sieve pore
        
        Lateral sieve area
        
        P protein
        
        Plastid
        
        Smooth ER
        
        Mitochondria
    - - Sieve tube & companion cell from same mother cell
      - Connected by a large quantity of plasmodesmata
      - One pore in sieve tube area branched into many on companion cell side
    - - P-proteins
        
        May help in plug pores in response to leakage
      - Forisomes
        
        Legumes
        
        Plug pores
      - Sieve element plastids
      - Mitochondria
        
        Very few
      - Endoplasmic reticulum
        
        Lost ribosomes
        
        Highly folded
    - - Cell wall thickened
      - Cytoplasmic clearing
        
        No ribosomes
      - Callose deposited around terminal plasmodesmata
      - Nuclear break down
      - Formation of sieve plate & pores
  - - - Root and shoot have different arrangements
      - Key features to Monocots and Eudicots
      - Monocot
        
        Root with pith
        
        Stem without pith
      - Eudicot
        
        Root without pith
        
        Stem with pith
    - - Complexity increased
      - Stem diameter increased
      - Plant height increased
      - Led to compartmentalization
      - Selected for a woody habit
    - - Protostele (~420Ma)
        
        Earliest
        
        Solid vascular strand
        
        Phloem surrounds xylem or interspersed
      - Siphonostele (~407Ma)
        
        Ring of phloem, xylem, surrounding pith
      - Eustele (~390Ma)
        
        Most complex
        
        Strands of phloem & xylem separated by parenchyma
        
        progymnosperms
    - - Based on xylem maturation
        
        Metaxylem
        
        Develops later
        
        typically larger in diameter
        
        Protoxylem
        
        1st xylem to mature
        
        typically smaller in diameter
      - Exarch
        
        Protoxylem outside metaxylem
        
        Eg protosteles
      - Endarch
        
        Protoxylem in middle
        
        eg eusteles, atactosteles
      - Mesarch
        
        Protoxylem surrounded by metaxylem
        
        eg siphonosteles
    - - Protostele
        
        Most ancestral type of stem vasculature
      - Exarch
    - - Siphonostele
        
        Xylem surrounded by phloem
      - Endarch
    - - Atactostele
        
        Numerous vascular bundles scattered throughout stem
      - No pith
      - Vascular bundles often surrounded by sclerenchyma
        
        Bundle sheath
    - - Eustele
        
        Phloem outside xylem
        
        Bundles separated by parenchyma
      - Endarch
        
        Metaxylem outside protoxylem
      - Vascular bundle supported by sclerenchyma, bundle cap
  - - - Amount of water loss per carbon gained increased after Silurian
      - Carboniferous period greatly drained atmospheric CO2
      - Water demand is relatively high
        
        Water transport system energetically efficient =(don’t starve)
        
        Minimal maintenance = cell death
        
        Transport energy minimal
        
        Water filtration close to soil access
    - - Increased competition for light selected for
        
        taller plants
        
        More developed tree canopies
      - Higher rates of transpiration
        
        More xylem, wider xylem & longer conduits
      - Likely evolved 5 times
    - - Monocotyledonae
      - Arborescent
        
        No secondary growth
    - - Lepidondrids
        
        Carboniferous
        
        ~320mya
        
        Vascular cambium only divided internally
      - Archaeopteris
        
        Devonian/Carboniferous
        
        Reproduced via spores
      - Extant lineages
        
        Lycophytes
        
        Euphyllophyte
    - - Complex plant development
      - Growth in girth
      - Produce secondary
        
        xylem (wood)
        
        phloem (inner bark)
        
        Ground tissue (rays)
      - Continuous circular ring growth
    - - Ray initials
        
        Stem cells
        
        Ray cells
        
        Interfascicular cambium
      - Periclinal division
        
        More xylem & phloem
      - Fusiform initials
        
        Stem cells
        
        Xylem and phloem
        
        Fascicular cambium
      - Anticlinal division
        
        Wider circle of vascular cambium
    - - Wood block
        
        Unique for each face
        
        Longitudinal
        
        Transverse
        
        Radial
      - Initials
        
        Fusiform - longitudinal
        
        Ray - radial
    - - Xylem secondary cell walls robust
      - Phloem is crushed
      - Ring width determined by season and environment
      - Alternation of
        
        Early wood
        
        Late wood
    - - Based on season or environment
      - Spring to fall
      - Larger elements to smaller elements
    - - Sapwood
        
        Functions in water transport
      - Heartwood
        
        Functions in storage
        
        Can no longer transport water
    - - Softwood
        
        Tracheids only
        
        Little room for fibers
        
        Gymnosperms
      - Hardwood
        
        Vessel elements’ efficiency permit space for fibers
        
        Angiosperms
    - - Vascular tissue
        
        Xylem
        
        Wood
        
        Primary and secondary
        
        Phloem
        
        Inner bar
        
        Secondary
        
        Primary squished
        
        Lots of fibers
      - Periderm
        
        Outer bark
        
        Phellem
        
        Phellogen
        
        Phelloderm
      - Ground tissue
        
        Rays connect
        
        Pith
        
        Cortex
    - - Outer bark
      - Inner bark
        
        Phloem and cortex
      - Periderm
        
        Phellum
        
        Cork
        
        Phellogen
        
        Cork cambium
        
        Phelloderm
- - - - Uni-multicellular projections
      - Anchorage
      - Some with mineral uptake
      - Genes
        
        predate land plants
        
        play a role in root hair development
    - - Lepidodendrales extinct
      - Dichotomous rooting system
      - Lateral stigmarian rootlets
        
        Root hairs, mixed reports
        
        Highly branched
      - Similar to roots
        
        No chlorophyll
        
        No stomata
        
        Develop gravitropically
      - No root cap
      - Extant species lycophyte
        
        Bifurcating
        
        With root hairs
        
        No quiescent center
    - - Rhynie chert, Zosterophyllophyta, Early Devonian
      - Upright stem, prostrate stems, downward (rootlike) stems
    - - Early without root hairs
      - Intact epidermis covered root tip
        
        Anticlinal divisions only
      - Devonian lycophyte Asteroxylon mackiei
      - Independent evolution of
        
        Endodermis
        
        Root cap
    - - Diversity of arrangement used to infer phylogeny
        
        Number of initial cells differs
      - Similar genes across plant taxa
      - Similar genes in shoot to root
  - - - Primary root
        
        Derived from radicle
        
        Main root
        
        Mainly dominant in eudicots
        
        Mainly ephemeral in monocots
      - Lateral roots
        
        Adventitious roots
        
        Derived from stems & leaves
        
        Dominant in monocots
        
        Seminal roots
        
        Derived from mesocotyl
    - - Highly differentiated multicellular axis
      - Found only in sporophytes of vascular plants
      - Functions
        
        Anchors plant body to substrate
        
        Absorbs water
        
        Absorbs dissolved minerals
      - Common features
        
        Apical meristem & root cap
        
        Pericycle
        
        Endodermis
        
        Root hairs
        
        Cortex
    - - Quiescent center
        
        Rarely divides
        
        Backup plan
        
        Maintains initial cells
      - Behind root cap
    - - Evolved independently
        
        Lycophyte
        
        Euphyllophyte
      - Protect underlying tissues
      - Cells that slough off
      - Secrete mucilage
    - - Pluripotent
      - Initiation of lateral root development
      - Just inside the endodermis
    - - Single celled
      - Major absorption of water and minerals
      - Via osmosis from hypotonic soil solution to hypertonic cells
      - Delicate
      - Short-lived
    - - Large storage area
      - Outermost layers may show
        
        Hypodermis
        
        Exodermis
        
        Casparian strip
        
        Suberized lamella
      - Bound by endodermis and epidermis
    - - Casparian strip
      - Prevents apoplastic movement of water
      - Forces water to move through cell membranes to be filtered
  - - - Selaginella sp example
      - No root cap
      - No root hairs
    - - Diversity
      - Pith in center
      - Endodermis
      - Surrounded by cortex
      - Monocot details
        
        Epidermis
        
        Cortex
        
        Endodermis
        
        Casparian strip
        
        Pericycle
        
        Xylem
        
        Phloem
        
        Pith
    - - Diversity
      - No pith
      - Endodermis
      - Cortex
      - Eudicot detail
        
        Epidermis
        
        Cortex
        
        Endodermis
        
        Casparian strip
        
        Pericycle
        
        Xylem
        
        Phloem
- - - - Moves water from soil to atmosphere
      - Major input of water cycle
    - - Potential for water to react or move
      - Due it it’s polarity
      - Attracted to other substances
      - Lower potential when it’s surrounded by ions
    - - Based on the free energy of water
      - Water moves from less negative water potentials to areas of more negative water potentials
    - - 3 components of water potential
      - ψ = ψp + ψπ + ψm
        
        ψp = pressure potential:
        
        effect that pressure has on ψ
        
        If water is under pressure, both pressure potential and water potential increase.
        
        ψπ = osmotic potential:
        
        effect that solutes have on ψ
        
        Adding solutes decreases water’s free energy, so ψπ is always negative.
        
        ψm = matric potential:
        
        adhesion to structures such as cell walls, membranes, and soil particles
        
        Adhesion can only decrease water’s free energy, so ψm is always negative.
    - - Hydrostatic pressure exerted on water in a cell
      - In turgid plant cells positive value
      - Xylem cells negative pressure due to tension
      - Water at atmospheric pressure has a pressure potential of zero
    - - Difference between the solution and pure solvent resulted after adding solutes
    - - Adhesion of water molecules to nondissolved structures
      - Example, soil particles
      - Always negative
      - Significant only outside living systems in very dry soils
  - - - Stomata open shortly after daybreak
      - Close at times of stress
      - Close at night
    - - Open stomata
      - Water evaporates from intercellular spaces
      - Starts the domino effect of water potentials
    - - Water moves from hypotonic to hypertonic solutions
      - Root hairs greatly increase surface area
    - - Casparian strip of root endodermis
      - Forces symplastic movement
      - Embolism is an air pocket
        
        Completely makes tracheary element non functional
    - - As H2O diffuses out of xylem in the leaves, cohesive forces pull H2O upward through the xylem, all the way from the roots.
      - H2O in the uppermost tracheary elements must lift the weight of the entire H2O column.
      - Tension is on these molecules, and consequently, the pressure potential is a negative number.
    - - Cohesion due to water polarity
      - Adhesion along cell walls helps to fight gravity
  - - - Transport assimilate from areas where it’s made = sources
      - Materials moved to sinks
        
        Actively growing areas
        
        Storage areas
    - - Sugars transported as sucrose
      - Actively transported into sieve elements
      - Decreases water potential of STE
    - - Creates a water potential gradient between sieve tube elements and surrounding cells
    - - Phloem is always close to xylem
      - Xylem has a much higher water potential than phloem
      - Water moves from less negative water potential to more negative water potential
    - - Sucrose actively transported from sieve tube
      - By companion cells
      - Stored as starch
      - Used in metabolism
        
        Aerobic respiration
    - - Water moves from root to atmosphere in a single direction
      - Assimilate moreves from source to closest sink
- - - - High atmospheric global temperatures
      - Low stomatal densities
        
        Increase permit greater evaporative cooling
      - Low capacities for water uptake prior to root evolution
      - Lacking efficient vascular transport in leaves
        
        Burn up leaf
        
        Vascular embolism
    - - Earliest evidence of true leaves
        
        Lycophytes #
        
        microphylls/ lycophylls
      - Euphyllophytes
        
        Independent evolution
    - - Indeterminate growth proceeded leaf development
      - Leaves initiated in regular patterns around stem
      - Optimize light interception for photosynthesis
    - - Leaves had at least 5 independent origins
        
        Liverwort gametophyte
        
        Moss gametophyte
        
        Lycophyte sporophyte
        
        Monilophyte sporophyte #
        
        Spermatophyte sporophyte
    - - Microphyll
        
        Lycophyte
        
        Mitosis of 2 epidermal cells
      - Frond
        
        Monilophyte
        
        Mitosis of single apical cell
        
        Shoot like development
      - Mitosis of a single cell
        
        Liverwort
        
        Moss
        
        Moss midvein cell layer
      - Euphylls
        
        Seed plants
        
        Pool of recruited cells
        
        From flanks of multicellular shoot apical meristem
    - - Lycophyte leaves
      - Progressive elaboration of epidermal outgrowths
      - Vascular strands entered later
      - Fossils consistent
        
        Asteroxylon
      - Living evidence
        
        Selaginella draussiana
        
        2 epidermal cells grow to form leaf pair
    - - Evolution of euphylls
      - Overtopping
        
        Unequal branching (primary & side)
      - Planation
        
        Flattening of axes into 2 dimensional
      - Webbing
        
        Develop thin tissue between axes of branches
        
        Branches becomes veins
        
        Webbing becomes mesophyll
      - By Devonian euphylls widespread
  - - - Ground tissue
      - Specialized parenchyma
      - Contains chloroplasts
      - Main function is photosynthesis
    - - Ground tissue
      - Specialized parenchyma
      - Contains air spaces from cells being digested
      - Main function permit gas-exchange
      - Large air pockets for buoyancy in aquatic plants
    - - Ground tissue
      - Thickened primary cell walls
      - Main function in flexible support
      - Found in bundle sheath of veins in some species
    - - Xylem
        
        Tracheids #
        
        Water transport
      - Phloem #
        
        Sieve tube element/ sieve cells
        
        Companion cells/ albuminous cells
        
        Photosynthate transport
      - In viens
    - - Dermal tissue
      - Epidermal cells
      - Guard cells
      - Often cutenized
      - Main function in protecting the internal tissues
    - - Lycophylls
        
        Microphyll
        
        Single vascular trace along center of blade
        
        Vascular strand connects directly to stem
        
        Mesophyll
        
        Epidermis
        
        Stomata
      - Monocot leaf
        
        Epidermis
        
        Adaxial (outer) & abaxial (towards stem)
        
        Covered by cuticle
        
        Contains stomata
        
        bulliform cells
        
        helpful for the rolling and unrolling
        
        Mesophyll
        
        Veins
        
        Surrounded by bundle sheaths
      - Eudicot leaf
        
        Mesophyll
        
        Palisade
        
        Photosynthesis
        
        Spongy
        
        Gas exchange
        
        Veins
        
        Bundle sheath cells
        
        Xylem on top phloem on bottom #
        
        Epidermis
        
        Dermal tissue
        
        Epidermal cells
        
        Guard cells
        
        Cuticle
        
        Upper & lower