Manifestations: reduction in macular thickness and had changes in neural parameters

impaired metabolism and elimination of hormones that are essential to maintaining homeostasis

Kidneys can not remove enough acid leading to metabolic acidosis

prolonged exertions, metabolic alterations, and anemia result

inadequate excretion of potassium

associated with development of cardiac arrest, abdominal cramping, and flaccid paralysis due to effects on sodium channels

Manifestations: muscle weakness or paralysis, cardiac conduction abnormalities, and cardiac arrhythmias, numbness and tingling, nausea and vomiting, irregular heart rate, shortness of breath

Treatment: diet, diuretics, adjusting dosage of medications, IV treatment, potassium-binders, dialysis

Manifestations: nausea and vomiting, headache, confusion, restlessness, irritability, muscle weakness and spasms, seizure, coma

Treatment: if due to diet, diuretics, or drinking too much, may be recommended to cut back on fluids and adjust diuretic use

Manifestations: rapid breathing, confusion, lethargy, nausea, vomiting, shock or death

Treatment: aim is to correct primary cause, replace fluid and electrolytes, and correct the pH

Treatment: excretion or getting rid of excess acids, buffering acids with a base to balance blood acidity, preventing the body from making too many acids, respiratory compensation, metabolic compensation, IV sodium bicarbonate, hemodialysis

lack of meeting excessive demands; dehydration, hemorrhage, cardiac failure

Manifestations: dyspnea, dizziness or syncope, chest pain, hypotension, tachycardia, weakness, decrease in cognitive function, oliguria or anuria

Treatment: IV fluids, renal replacement therapy, inotropic drugs, renal vasodilators, systemic vasopressors

Manifestations: earliest is hypertension, flank pain, headaches, nausea, anorexia, urinary tract infection, lever and pancreatic cysts, cardiac valvular disease, renal calculi, cerebral aneurysms, diverticular disease

cysts of increasing size and number replace the functional tissue that leads to this

pressure on renal blood vessels obstruct perfusion and lead to tissue degeneration and obstructed tubular flow

Treatment: with renal failure, kidney transplantation indicated, analgesics for pain, dialysis; hemodialysis,

Manifestations: decreased and concentrated urine output, with more severe being anorexia, nausea, vomiting, headache, irritability, disorientation, muscle cramps, and weakness, sometimes psychosis, gait disturbances, seizures, or coma

Treatment: water restriction, isotonic or hypertonic saline administered intravenously, IV solutions, medications to block effects of ADH or to increase urine output if removing cause is not possible

stroke, cognitive dysfunction, encephalopathy, peripheral and autonomic neuropathies, ataxia

Treatment: dialysis, transplant, symptom management, blood pressure control, blood sugar control, cholesterol medications