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applied anatomy & physiology, high pressure when lungs are full, low…
applied anatomy & physiology
skeleton
structure
types of bones
long
they are long and affect height, they support weight
eg. femur & humerus
flat
they are flat and often found forming protection
eg. cranium & pelvis
short
they are small & often found with many others, they allow finer movements
eg. hand bones
irregular bones
these are irregular in shape & have a specific function
eg. bones of the spine (vertebral column)
the skeletal system allows movement at joints
different joint types allow different types of movement
the skeleton forms points of attachment for muscles
eg. when muscles contract they pull on the bone
functions
S
hape, structure & points of attachment
B
lood production
M
ovement
M
ineral storage
S
upport
P
ro
s
wimmers
m
ust
s
how
b
ig
m
uscles
P
rotection
bones
elbow - humerous, radius, ulna
hip - pelvis & femur
chest - ribs & sternum
knee - femur & tibia (patella infront)
shoulder - scapula & humerous
ankle - tibia , fibula & talus
head / neck - cranium & vertebrae
muscles
in the body
intercostal muscles
latissimus dorsi
triceps
abdominals
biceps
gluteals
pectorals
hip flexors
rotator cuffs
quadriceps
deltoids
hamstrings
trapezius
gastrocnemius
sternocleidomastoid
tibialis anterior
antagonistic pairs
hip
when bringing leg up (flexion):
agonist:
hip flexor contracts to allow flexion
antagonist:
gluteals relax to allow flexion
femur
gluteals & hip flexors
knee
when straightening (extension):
agonist:
quadriceps contract to allow leg to straighten,
antagonist:
hamstrings lengthen to allow movement
femur
quadricep & hamstring
elbow
when bending (flexion):
agonist:
bicep contracts to allow flexion at the elbow
antagonist:
triceps relax to allow the movement
involves humerus, radius & ulna
bicep & tricep
ankle
when pointing (plantar flexion):
agonist:
gastrocnemius contracts to allow foot to point,
antagonist:
tibialis anterior relaxes to allow movement
tibia & fibula
tibialis anterior & gastrocnemius
shoulder
when lifting arm (abduction):
agonist:
deltoid contracts in order to lift arm,
antagonist:
lattisimus dorsi relaxes to allow the movement
scapula & humerous
lattisimus dorsi & deltoid
isometric vs isotonic
isometric
this occurs if the body is in a fixed position
our postural muscles produce isometric contractions when we are standing
the muscles stay the same length during contraction or when the activity is being carried out
eg. crucifix on rings, plank or wall sit
isotonic
eg. bicep curl (bicep), chin up (bicep)
eccentric:
where the muscle lengthens under tension. An eccentric contraction provides the control of the movement on the downwards phase. works to resist the forces of gravity
concentric:
the muscles shorten & get fatter. movement occurs against gravity
eg. bicep curl (tricep), chin ups (triceps)
joints
types of joints
hinge
- only allows forwards & backwards movement. Flexion and extension
eg. elbow, knee & ankle
ball & socket
- allows movement in all directions & also rotation. They are the most mobile joints in the body. The
rounded end
of one bone fits inside a
cup-shaped
ending on another bone
eg. hip & shoulder
synovial joint
joint capsule
- tought fibrous tissue surrounds synovial joints, supported by ligaments - stabalises the joint by limiting it's range of motion
bursae
- fluid filled bags in synovial fluid - help reduce friction
synovial fluid
-thick liquid that cusions the end of bones - reduces friction when moving
cartilage
- covers end of bones - provides smooth friction free surface
ligaments
- link bone to bone - helps stabalise joint by alliviating pressure on bones
synovial membrane
- layer of conective tissue between joints - produces synovial fluid for lubrication
synovial joints are foundat the knee, hip, elbow & shoulder
movement allowed at joints
rotation
- at shoulder
circumduction
- at shoulder
abduction / adduction
- at shoulder
plantar flexion / dorsi flexion
- at ankle
flexion / extension
- at shoulder, elbow, hip & knee
anaerobic
high intensity, short period of time
eg. sprinter, gymnastics vault
glucose -> energy + lactic acid
Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC / oxygen debt)
oxygen debt needs to be repaid
oxygen removes lactic acid from working muscles until it's all gone
lactic acid is produced (causes muscle fatigue - is poisonous)
the more experienced an athlete the more efficient their O2 consumption
this is because the athlete is unable to get all their energy from oxygen
during short intense exercise energy is created anaerobically
anaerobic - respiration not in the presence of oxygen
aerobic
glucose + oxygen -> energy + carbon dioxide + water
low intensity exercise for a long period of time
aerobic - respiration happening in the presence of oxygen
eg. long distance runner / cyclist
respiratory system
gaseous exchange
features that assist
lots of cappillaries - lots of places for diffusion to blood stream
large blood supply
moist, thin walls (one cell thick) - short diffusion distance
movement of gas from a high concentration to a low concentration
aveoli have large surface area - lots of space for diffusion
oxygen combines with haemoglobin in red blood cell to form oxyhaemoglobin
haemoglobin can also carry CO2 back to be breathed out
mechanics of breathing
exhaling
rib cage - moves down & in
diaphragm - relaxes back into a dome shape (moves up)
intercostal muscles - relax
inhaling
rib cage - moves up & out
diaphragm - contracts (goes down)
intercostal muscles - contract
lungs can expand more during exercise (inspiration) due to the use of pectorals and sternocleido mastoid.
during exercise (expiration) the rib cage is pulled down quickker to force out air quicker
the is because of the use of the abdominal muscles
changes in air pressure cause inhilation & expiration
pathway of air
bronchi
broncioles
trachea
alveoli
mouth / nose
spirometer trace
during exercise
no change in residual volume
expitory reserve volume decreases slightly
tidal volume increases
inspiratory reserve volume decreases
cardiac system
structure of the heart
right ventricle
left atrium
right atrium
left ventricle
cardiac cycle & pathway of blood
pulmonary artery deoxygenated blood to the lungs
gas exchange occurs (blood is oxygenated)
then into right ventricle via semilunar valve
pulmonary vein transports oxygenated blood back to the left atrium
deoxygenated blood into right atrium via vena cava
oxygenated blood to left ventricle via semilunar valve
systole:
the heart contracts squeezing the blood out of the heart under high pressure
oxygenated is ejected from the aorta and transported around the body
diastole:
the heart relaxes and fills with blood
valves open due to pressure and close to prevent backflow
blood vessels
veins
mostly carry deoxygenated blood (apart from pulmonary vein - oxygenated blood from lungs to heart)
carries blood at low pressure
larger lumen
valves to prevent the backflow of blood
thinner walls
carries blood to the heart
diameter: between 1-15mm
capillaries
cover alveoli
one cell thick
very small
allow the diffusion of substances
eg. O2 & CO2 cross into the tissue cells (muscles)
arteries
mostly carry oxygenated blood (apart from pulmonary artery - deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs)
carries blood at very high pressure
small lumen
no valves
thick, muscular, elastic walls
diameter: between 0.1-10mm
carries blood away from the heart
vasodilation vs vasoconstriction
Vasodilation
narrowing of the internal diameter to restrict the blood flow
arteries constrict during exercise to limit blood flow to inactive areas
Vasoconstriction
the widening of the internal diameter allowing increased blood flow
arteries dilate during exercise to increase oxygen supply to active areas and muscles
The vascular shunt
at rest blood is concentrated towards the vital organs (80%)
blood is delivered to the working muscles during exercise
refers to the redistribution of blood during + after exercise
terms
working hr:
the number of times the heart beats per minute after exercise (bpm)
recovery hr:
the amount of time it takes for the heart to recover from working hr to resting hr (minutes)
maximum hr:
worked out using 220-age (bpm)
stroke volume:
the volume of blood that leaves the heart (left ventricle) during each contraction (cm^3)
resting hr:
the number of times the heart beets in a minute when you are not exercising (bpm)
cardiac output:
the volume of blood that the heart is able to pump out per minute (heart rate x stroke volume)
heart rate:
the number of times the heart beats in a minute (bpm)
immediate, short & long term effects of exercise
short
light headedness
nausea
tiredness / fatigue
aching // delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) // cramp
long
improve speed
improve suppleness
improve muscular endurance
build cv endurance
build muscle strength
improve stamina
improvements to specific components of fitness
increase size of heart (hypertrophy)
body shape may change
lower resting heart rate (bradycardia)
immediate
increased depth & frequency of breathing
increased heart rate
hot // sweaty // red skin
recovery process
manipulation of diet
carb rich food to replace glucose and slow energy release // rehydration
ice baths / massage
ice baths: prevention of delayed onset muscle soreness // constricts blood vessels , massage: prevent / relieve DOMS (is expensive)
cool downs
aids removal of lactic acid // maintain elevated breathing levels / heart rate // stretching
high pressure when lungs are full
low pressure when lungs are "empty"
