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What conditions are most favourable for enzyme function in the management…

- - - - Oxidoreductases are a broad group of enzymes that catalyze electron transfer from one molecule to another (a reductive molecule or an electron donor) (the oxidant or the electron acceptor) (Science Direct, 2023).
    - - A transferase is an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a functional group (e.g. a methyl or phosphate group) from one molecule (called the donor) to another (called the acceptor) (Science Direct, 2023).
    - - Hydrolase is a class of enzyme that commonly perform as biochemical catalysts that use water to break a chemical bond, which typically results in dividing a larger molecule into smaller molecules. Digestive enzymes are classified as hydrolases because they breakdown large and complex food into small and simple ones with use of water (Byjus, 2023).
    - - an enzyme (as a decarboxylase) that forms double bonds by removing groups from a substrate other than by hydrolysis or that adds groups to double bonds (Merriam-Webster, 2023).
    - - An enzyme that catalyzes the isomerization changes in a molecule, thereby aid in the conversion of a chemical compound from one isomeric form to another (Biology Online 2022).
    - - In biochemistry, a ligase is an enzyme that can catalyze the joining of two large molecules by forming a new chemical bond. DNA ligases play an essential role in maintaining genomic integrity by joining breaks in the phosphodiester backbone of DNA that occur during replication and recombination, and as a consequence of DNA damage and its repair (National Library of Medicine, 2022).
  - - - increase the rate of chemical reactions without themselves being consumed or permanently altered by the reaction (Cooper, 2000).
      - They are essential for respiration, digesting food, muscle and nerve function (Medical News Today, 2023).
      - Enzymes are biodegradable (Enzyme Technical Association, 2001).
    - - allergies- symptoms include respiratory allergic symptoms such as asthma and/or rhinitis at variable levels fo exposure ( Voisin and Borici-Mazi, 2016).
      - Require extremely controlled conditions due to sensitivity to certain temperature, pH, and other operating conditons (Khan Academy 2023).
      - Enzymes denature at high temperatures and, therefore, they may be ineffective in hot climatic conditions (BYJU'S 2022).
- - - - Enzyme denaturation happens when the structure of a protein and its functional group undergo conformational changes, resulting in inactivity(Byjus, 2019).Denaturation is caused by the breaking of the bonds that hold the enzyme together in its three-dimensional shape. Heat can break hydrogen and ionic bonds, which disrupts the shape of the enzyme and will change the shape of the active site. (OpenStax,2016).
- - - - Power of Hydrogen (pH) represents a solution’s acidity or basicity on a scale 0 to 14 (most acidic to basic) where 7 indicates neutrality (Britannica 2023). Altering pH outside of an enzyme’s optimum range can denature them, altering their active site shape and preventing substrates from binding to form a product—slowing enzymic activity and reducing respiration rate (Carey et al 2023
        
        At pH 7 there is an equal balance of acid and base and this pH is considered neutral (Study.com, 2023). Although most enzymes remain high activity in the pH range between 6 and 8, some specific enzymes work well only in extremely acidic (i.e. pH <5.0) or alkaline (i.e. pH >9.0) conditions (The National Library of Medicine, 2013).
      - The graph displayed on the left visualises the rate of enzymatic activity as the pH of enzymes increase. The increase at the start to reach peak before decreasing after shows that as the pH value is increased above or decreased below the optimum pH, the enzyme activity decreases (Khan Academy 2023)
    - - optimum temperature = 37 degrees celcius (for human enzymes)
      - Temperature: Raising temperature generally speeds up a reaction, and lowering temperature slows down a reaction. However, extreme high temperatures can cause an enzyme to lose its shape (denature) and stop functioning (Kahn Academy, 2020).
      - In this example, the effect of temperature on enzyme activity can be seen as raising temperature speeds up the reaction, (hence the fast increased in enzyme activity as the temperature rises from 10 to 30, before when it reaches around 37 degrees Celsius (optimum temperature), the extremely high temperature causes the enzyme to denature.
    - - Substrate concentration: Increasing substrate concentration also increases the rate of reaction to a certain point. Once all of the enzymes have bound, any substrate increase will have no effect on the rate of reaction, as the available enzymes will be saturated and working at their maximum rate (Kahn Academy, 2020).
    - - disadvantages
        
        In medicine, numerous side effects have been detected due to the inability for the enzyme to work effectively. For example, numerous side effects of proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) have been proposed, including increased risk of gastric neoplasia, kidney disease, dementia, liver disease, and fractures (The National Library of Medicine, 2019).
      - advantages
        
        Inhibitors can either stop the substrate from getting to the enzyme’s active site or prevent the enzyme from catalysing the reaction, which is an advantage at is has the ability to stop dangerous reactions from occurring. For example, a lot of drugs act as inhibitors because by blocking the activity of enzymes, pathogens can be killed or metabolic imbalances can be corrected (Infinitia, 2021).
      - Enzyme inhibitors are molecules that act by blocking or slowing enzymatic function, significantly reducing the capacity to convert substrates into products (Kuddus, 2019).
        
        Competitive inhibitors: Competitive inhibitors prevent enzymes from recognising or binding to substrates, either by masking the substrate or by blocking the active-site on the enzyme.
        
        Non-competitive inhibitors: May significantly reduce enzymatic activity without affecting substrate recognition or binding(Hiddemann 2015).
- - - - Type of enzymes
        
        Main digestive enzymes
        
        protease
        
        sucrasse
        
        lipase
        
        amylase
        
        lactase
        
        WHY IS CHANGING THE TYPE OF ENZYME A POSSIBLE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THIS RESEARCH QUESTION? • changing the type of enzyme (independent variable) allows for testing of optimum operating conditions for different enzymes and exploring the differences in their effects on enzyme activity
        • this can be explored in the human body (for example, by comparing the effect of amylase versus lactase in the digestive system)
        .
        
        types of enzyme conditions
        
        pH
        
        temperature
        
        concentration of enzymes
        
        concentration of substrate
        
        presence or absence of competitive or non-competitive inhibitors
        
        WHY IS CHANGING THE TYPE OF ENZYME CONDITONS A POSSIBLE INDEPENDANT VARIABLE FOR THIS RESEARCH QUESTION?
        • Changing the enzyme condition type and keeping the type of enzyme natural allows for the relationship between the optimum operating conditions on enzyme activity to be explored and compared.
        • Impact: Allows determination of which condition has the most effect on enzyme operation, for example, if this was the independent variable.
        ,
    - - what reactions are most efficient
      - rate of denaturing of enzymes (based on the independent variables of the different operating conditions and the different main enzyme types)
      - rate of saturation of enzymes
      - WHY? in all three examples below of possible dependent variables to be tested for this inquiry question, the purpose of all three in terms of this experiment is to measure the effect of operating conditions through the results of its effect in different ways. By doing this, a relationship can be determined between these three dependent variables to see if the pattern of effect is the same despite the different ways of measuring the optimum operating conditions.
- - - - what is the benefit of biodegradable material in supporting waste management?
        
        Biodegradable plastics are the eco-friendly solution to traditional plastic. They break down quickly while also reducing the waste and methane in landfills. In addition, biodegradable plastics are sustainable and can prevent the ongoing use and production of plastic (Crighton 2023).
        
        Impact of this on the further environment? Biodegradable plastics are a better option as they can quickly decompose and be absorbed by the soil or turned into compost. This benefits waste management as even if a complete breakdown does not occur, the amount of area required to dispose of the world's plastic waste is reduced(Nayera Awny Mahmoud et al. 2023)
- - - - pros: starch is easily accessable
      - cons(risks): Ensuring that the starch mixture is uniformly mixed to accurately test the ability of different concentrations in impacting rate of reaction
  - - - pros: water baths ensure that the temperature is controlled
      - cons ( things to consider+ possible risks): if the temperature of the water bath is very hot there is a chance of possible burns. Can be mitigated by wearing gloves and safety clothing
  - - - pros- potato is inexpensive and easily obtainable
      - cons (risks) - hydrogen peroxide can be hazardous in high concentrations. Risk can be mitigated by wearing protective gear
  - - - pros: The data is able to be applied and
        related back to real life applications
        more easily (e.g protein breakdown for protease).
      - cons (risks): Each enzyme has a set of
        conditions where they work best,
        depending on where they act
        and what they do (Krise, 2021).
        Therefore enzyme function may
        have been altered by specific
        operationing conditions as well
        just the type of enzyme.