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U14 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - "My boyfriend is far older than me.
        She is a bit more sensible than her brother."
  - - - Cool, Chilly, Cold, Freezing
        
        Phrase, Sentence, Paragraph, Text, Book.
        
        Flat, Cottage, Mansion, Villa, Palace.
        
        Glimpse, Glance, Look, Stare, Gaze
        
        Crawl, Creep, Walk, Run, Sprint
  - - - "It is going to be very cold.
        I am grateful enough to you.
        You look rather sad."
- - - - Comparative of Proportion
        
        things change or vary together or that two variable qualities are systematically related. Formed by "the" + comparative form + Subj + Vb
        
        "The older I get, the happier I am"
      - Irregular forms
        
        Good → Better → Best
        
        Bad → Worse → Worst
        
        Far → Further → Furthest (time)
        
        Far → Farther → Farthest (distances)
        
        Old → Elder → Eldest (order of birth)
        
        Many → More → Most (count Sg/Pl)
        
        Few → Fewer → Fewest (count Pl)
      - Comparison of adverbs
        
        The majority of the adverbs that inflect for comparison are identical in form with adjectives. Some adverbs also take irregular forms
        
        Early → Earlier → Earliest
        
        Soon → Sooner → Soonest
        
        Fast → Faster → Fastest
        
        Hard → Harder → Hardest
        
        Much → More → Most
        
        Little → Less → Least
        
        Well → Better → Best
        
        Badly → Worse → Worst
      - Formation
        
        Two-syllable Adjs
        
        can take both forms:
        –er & more / –est & most
        
        Ending in an unstressed vowel, /l/ or schwa + (r): narrow, simple, clever
        
        Three-syllable Adjs or more take more / most
        
        Ending in –y (-ier / -iest): happy, happier, happiest
        
        Ending in –ful, –less, –ing, –ed: take more / most
        
        One-syllable Adjs
        
        ending in –er / –est
      - Comparative of Gradation
        
        when we want to say that something is changing
        
        "I am getting fatter and fatter"
        "We are going more and more slowly"
        
        "More and more..."
      - Absolute Comparison
        
        Because of its absolute meaning the second term of the comparison is omitted, for instance. Formed by: "the" + Adj in comparative form
        
        "It is the better choice"
  - - - "My eyes are as cold as ice"
        "Anna is not so tall as John"
- - - - Cardinal: one, two, three
        
        Ordinal: first, second, third
    - - what, which, whose
    - - this, that, these, those
    - - my, your, his, our their
    - - all, any, few, less, little, some, many, much, no & several
      - /Quantifiers
    - - each, every, both, half, either & neither
    - - a/an, the
  - - - Attributive only
        
        an absolute fool / *the fool is absolute
        
        Attributive adjs: when they appear between the determiner and the head of the noun phrase (most are non-inherent). They denote some attribute/quality of the noun they modify
        
        Post-nominal
        
        The president elected
        
        Prenominal
        
        The young lady
        
        Intensifying Adjs
        
        classified by the effect they create on the noun they modify
        
        Amplifiers
        
        scale upwards from an assumed point denoting a high or extreme degree. Convey degree (scale the quality of the noun upwards)
        
        "A complete victory,
        A great destruction,
        An absolute hero,
        A firm belief"
        
        1 more item...
        
        absolute, great, complete, perfect, firm
        
        Emphasizers
        
        have a general amplifying/heightening effect and are generally attributive only. Convey emphasis (enhance the quality of the noun)
        
        "A true scholar,
        A clear failure,
        A certain winner,
        A real hero"
        
        utter, real, pure, certain, clear, true, plain, definite, sure
        
        Downtoners
        
        have a lowering effect/scale, usually scaling downwards from an assumed point (reduce the strength of the noun's quality). They are few
        
        "A slight effort,
        A feeble joke,
        A poor decision,
        A small problem,
        A minor mistake"
        
        feeble, slight, poor, minor, tiny, small
        
        Many intensifying adjs can be related to intensifying advs: "He is a true scholar /He is truly a scholar"
        
        :star:
      - Predicative only
        
        *a loath woman / the woman is loath to admit it
        
        Predicative Adjs: placed after a linking verb (feel, be, get, sound, seem, look like, looks as if, taste, …). They do not form part of a noun phrase but of a verb phrase. They tend to refer to a (temporary) condition rather than to characterize. A large group of them are Adjs which can take complementation: afraid/aware/fond of, subject to, glad that...
        
        Subject complement
        
        When the adjective refers to the subject
        
        "The coffee is hot"
        
        Object complement
        
        When the adjective refers to the object
        
        "I like my coffee hot"
      - Attributive & Predicative
        
        Both: a hungry man / the man is hungry
      - Position
    - - Compounding
        
        Noun + Present part.: record-breaking, home-coming, time-saving, English-speaking
        
        Noun + Past part.: home-made, sun-burnt, middle-aged, wind-powered
        
        Noun + Adj: world-famous, gluten-free, family-friendly, sky-blue, snow-white
        
        Adj + Adj: red-hot, dark-blue, light-green
        
        Adj + Present part.: good-looking, easy-going, long-lasting, quick-thinking
        
        Adj + Past part.: old-fashioned, ready-made, short-lived, long-forgotten, open-minded
        
        Adj + Noun: high-quality, long-term, last-minute, low-cost
        
        Adj/Adv + Noun ending in -ed: blue-eyed, bare-footed, long-legged, well-mannered
        
        Adverb + Past part.: so-called, well-dressed, far-fetched, well-known, highly-respected
        
        Number + Noun: one-time, ten-minute, twenty-page,
        
        time-saving
        
        home-made
        
        good-looking
        
        old-fashioned
        
        hard-working
        
        well-known
        
        gluten-free
        
        high-quality
        
        red-hot
        
        one-time
      - Affixation
        
        Derivational suffixes
        
        -able: comfortable (vb)
        
        -ive: creative (vb)
        
        -ful: useful
        
        -ish: childish
        
        -ous: couragerous
        
        -al: natural
        
        -ic: athletic
        
        -less: useless
        
        -y: dirty
        
        -like: childlike
        
        Inflectional suffixes
        
        -er
        
        -est
      - Prepositional Adjs
        
        About: crazy, exited, sorry, angry, anxious
        
        Of: afraid, tired, fond, sick
        
        With: angry, pleased, impressed, satisfied
        
        At: good, surprised, pleased
        
        To: nice, friendly, cruel, kind
        
        Adjs followed by certain Preps
      - It cannot be said whether a word is an adjective by looking at it in isolation, because its morphological form does not necessarily indicate its syntactic function
      - Common adjectives
        
        Many common adjs have no identifying morphological form (good, hot, little, young, fat) nor can we identify a word as an adjective merely from its potentialities for inflection (morphological form)
    - - Gradable/ Nongradable
        
        Gradable
        
        Gradability can be manifested through comparison. It refers to the degree of intensity of an Adj (positive, comparative, superlative). Also, through modification by intensifiers (very/so/extremely tall)
        
        Most Adjs are gradabe, contain pairs of opposites (hot/cold) & take degree expressions through modification by intensifiers (very, so, really, totally, much, pretty, quite…). All dynamic & most stative Adjs are gradable (old, loud, *atomic). Intensifiers amplify/emphasize the meaning of the word they modify
        
        :star:
        
        Nongradable
        
        Normally appear in an attributive position and they do not take the comparative form: denominal Adjs (wooden) & Adjs of origin (British)
        
        "A criminal court"
        "A polar bear"
      - Inherent/ Noninherent
        
        Inherent
        
        Most Adjs are inherent, as they characterize the referent of the Noun directly. The attribute/quality they denote is inherent to the N they modify. They describe an intrinsic quality of the noun they modify.
        
        "A complete victory": the victory was complete
        "Great destruction": the destruction was great
        "An old man": a man who is old
        "Difficult questions": questions that are difficult
        
        Noninherent
        
        do not characterize the referent of the N directly. They refer less directly to the attribute/quality of the noun
        
        "A complete fool": the fool is NOT complete
        "An old friend": the friend is NOT old
        "A heavy smoker": the smoker is NOT heavy
        
        a big eater, a fast learner, an early riser, a deep sleeper...
      - Stative/ Dynamic
        
        Stative
        
        when the information they add about the thing or person they refer to is not likely to change (most of them). They denote a permanent state/condition
        
        "She is tall"
        
        Dynamic
        
        when the information provided by the adjective is subjected to measurement or temporality. Attributes which are to some extent under the control of the possessor
        
        they denote qualities that are controlled by the possessor and hence can be restricted temporally. So, they can be used with the progressive and the imperative, whereas static Adjs cannot
        
        He is being careful. Be careful (Dynamic)
        *He is being tall. Be tall (Static)
        
        "He is being careful"
        
        funny, careless, naughty, impatient
      - Class
    - - Nouns
        
        They occur in the Sg form, even when they express a plural concept
        
        A five-pound note (NOT a five-pounds note)
        A two year-old baby (NOT a two year-olds baby)
        
        Also, premodifying Ns often correspond to/can be substituted by postmodification with prepositional phrase (of-phrase)
        
        His life story --- The story of his life.
        A Sussex man --- A man from Sussex
        An iron rod --- A rod of iron
      - Relative clauses
        
        The adjectival relative clause is a subordinate clause that functions as an adjective placed immediately after the Noun it qualifies. They are linked to the main clause by a relative pronoun pointing back to the head of the noun phrase (the antecedent): who, whom, whose, which, that & zero
        
        Choice of Relative pronoun
        
        Subject/Object
        
        whether the role of the Pron within the relative clause is:
        
        The girl who is going to marry Peter is... (subject)
        The girl (who) Peter is going to marry is... (object)
        
        Personal/Non-personal
        
        The man who was following us is gone (person)
        The car which was following us is gone (thing)
        
        whether the head of the NP is:
        
        Restrictive/Non-restrictive
        
        (Defining: essential/necessary info, pronoun can be omitted)
        People who/that live in towns are happy
        
        (Non-defining: additional info, pronoun cannot be omitted)
        Many people, who live in towns, are happy
        
        whether the clause is:
        
        "The letters (that he wrote to her) should be published"
      - Participles
        
        Present part.
        
        describing effect or a process/state
        
        "It was an amazing/boring story"
        "The story was amazing/boring"
        
        Past part.
        
        related to transitive Vbs & have a passive meaning
        
        A frightened person
        Some boiled water
        A painted room
      - (other types of premodifying items)
      - Adverbs
        
        Usually, the Adj is placed before the Noun & the Adv is placed after the Verb or, if present, the object. Structurally, Advs can be substituted either by:
        
        PP + Noun
        
        He spoke to John sharply.
        He spoke to John in a sharp manner.
        
        NP + premodifying Adj
        
        He visits frequently.
        His frequent visits.