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Research Methods in Context - general - Coggle Diagram

- - - - the sample is selected purely be chance. everyone has an equal chance of being selected
      - Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) the 'spurters' population was taken out a hat
    - - every nth person in the sampling frame is selected
        
        Young and Willmott (1973) the symmetrical family selected every 36th name on the electoral register for their sample
    - - the sample is stratified and then each interviewer is given a quota which they have to fill with respondents who fit the characteristics of the stratified groups. the interviewer keeps at this task until their quota is complete.
      - Rubin at al (2005) - telephone interviews to gauge the psychological effects of the London bombing on Londoners. - used to select individual over 18yrs and were set for sex, age, working status, residential location and ethnicity
    - - the researcher first stratifies the population in the sampling frame by CAGE, etc. The sample is then created in the same proportions
        
        e.g. is 20% of the population of under 18 then 20% of the sample will be under 18
        
        the annual Crime Survey for England and Wales nationally representative sample of around 35000 adults and 3000 children (10-15yrs) - age, gender and region
  - - - collecting a sample by contacting a number of key individuals, who are asked to suggest others who might be interviewed, and so on, adding to the sample "snowball" fashion, until enough data has been collected.
      - Becker (1963) interviewed 50 marijuana users. first contacted those he know in the music industry and as them to put him in contact with others who would be willing to participate.
    - - choosing from those individuals who are easitest to access - volunteers and passer-bys on the street.
      - James Patrick's (1973) study 'A Glasgow Gang Observed' gained access into a Maryhill area Glaswegian gang for four months in the late 1950s. - gained access through one of his students.
  - - - sample - small piece of the sample frame which is studied
- - - - can have a person bias as to what and how something is researched
    - - can be limited - vulnerable groups, school timetable, people who fit the criteria, etc
    - - sensitive topics are often hard to research as less people are willing to participate, and can afect the results
    - - longer time spent means more expenses, and often harder to keep the same sample due to changing life factors
    - - the more expensive an investigation is the less time it can be over, and affect the amount of researchers, and sample size as well
    - - is the opportunity cannot be controlled, then it can limit the sample size, method used, etc
  - - - covert
        
        in covert research, there is no informed consent or right to withdraw, and if they leave with no explanation it can cause psychological or physical harm to the participants, can force the researcher into completing illegal or immoral tasks to keep their cover.
      - overt
        
        in overt research people are more likely to hide their true actions and intentions and this affects the validity of the research as well as the trust which can be built between the two groups
    - - need informed consent at all times, and if the research is length and participant who withdraws can affect the results of the entire research.
    - - need to keep identity a secret to prevent any harm or negative effect on the participants
    - - informed consent of both the vulnerable person and often parent/carer is needed
        
        takes more time and limits the sample size
  - - - operationalising concepts - different sociologists will do this differently
      - ignores people's feelings and the motives behind actions
    - - hard to compare different research - focuses on meaning and motives which are hard to compare one response to the other
      - ignores the structures of society which can cause things to happen - positivists (puppets)
      - often not objective as they are empathetic of the sample
    - - cant be used for everything - looks at a cause and effect relationship (not everything fits this)
      - operationalising concepts
      - often low validity
    - - hard to compare - each account is different
      - often low reliability
- - - - numerica and statstical data
      - often colsed, pre-coded questions
      - more likely to be drawn from controlled situations
        
        e.g. laboratory experiments over field experiments
      - Example
        
        Loftus and Palmer measures responses in terms of estimated speed
      - deals with 'what' rather than 'why'
        
        E.g. number of words recalled in a memory experiment or how many participants obeyed in the Milgram experiment
      - strengths
        
        possible to analyses data effectively
        
        can compare the data between different sets
        
        increases reliability
      - weaknesses
        
        reductionists (The principle that the whole can be best understood by examining its parts)
        
        E.g. Reducing the behaviour of women and men into biological expressions of genes and hormones
        
        thought and emotion have been reduced into numbers
        
        affects validity of the experiment.
    - - detailed descriptions, words, images and participants views
      - often open questions that can come with follow up questions for further depth or case studies/real world settings
      - answer in own words with no formal meausre.
      - example
        
        testig whether someone is prejudice using a questionnaire using a series of in depth interviews to ascertain behaviour
      - deals with 'why' rather than 'what'
        
        E.g. how memory works or interviewing participants to see why they went so far on Milgram's shock generator
      - strengths
        
        indepth analysis
        
        more meaningful conclusion
        
        increased validity
      - weaknesses
        
        difficult to compare groups of results, due to individualistic and subjectivity of results.
        
        reduces reliability
  - - - definition
        
        information that was not present before the research began. the information was gathered by the researcher
        
        it includes data produced by questionnaires, interviews and observations.
      - quantitative examples
        
        questionnaires, structured interviews, experiments (lab)
      - qualitative examples
        
        participant observation, unstructured interviews, experiments (field)
    - - defintion
        
        refers to data which already exists.
        
        it includes data from historical records, official statistics, government reports, diaries, autobiographies, novels, newspapers, films and recorded music
      - quantitative examples
        
        official statistics, opinion polls
      - qualitative examples
        
        letters, newspaper articles, diaries, websites, historical documents, photographs
  - - - want to identify the underlying causes of peiple's behaviour
      - favour quantitative data
      - example
        
        Emile Durkheim
      - theoretical constraint
        
        only science can produce objective, unbiased knowledge about social behaviour
      - methods used
        
        questionnaires
        
        official statistics
        
        formal or studtured interviews
    - - want to understand how people give meaning to the social world around the
      - favour qualitative data
      - example
        
        Max Weber (1905)
        
        study of the role of the Calvinist religion in the rise of capitalism
        
        used case studies to look at unique events
      - methods used
        
        informal or unstructured interviews
        
        participant observation
        
        research using face to face contact is called ethnography
      - disagree with positivists and argue that society cannot be studied objectively
        
        this is because, social behaviour is not determined by invisible social forces like patriarchy and social class.
        
        there is no 'objective' reality 'out there' to discover'
        
        actors shape the world around then in the course of interactions
        
        people give meaning to their own behaviour and the behaviour of others
        
        they interpret behaviour
        
        E.g. a sudden death might be interpreted as an accident by one coroner but as a suicide by another. therefore, suicide statistics are not 'objective facts'
        
        they argue that researchers must abandon the methods of science and use qualitative methods to uncover the meanings and motives given to behaviour
        
        aim to gain verstehen
  - - - interested in uncovering relationships between patriarchy and women's lives
        
        often positivsts
    - - interested in how a relatively small group of people oppress the masses
        
        often positivsts or interpretivists
    - - explore values consensus and are interested in how society maintains agreement
        
        often positivists
    - - are interested in social action and context
        
        often interactionists
    - - ability to reproduce - operationalise concepts, systematic method, quantative data
    - - true, full picture of the subject - honesty, trust, no-bias, detailed explanations, qualitative data
    - - it can be generalised to the nation - sample size, un-biased, cross-section
    - - positivists or interpretivists - favours the different types of data/method, different goals in study
  - - - who is funding it - bias, influence in method and design?
    - - how much money do they have - size of sample, time available, no. researchers, geographics, etc?
    - - length of time available - size of research, representation and generalisability
        
        especially true of qualitative methods as they need greater depth and analysis
    - - what is being studied - limit method choice, willing participants, sample size, honesty, covert/overt?
    - - access to participants - direct choice of method, some are easier to access than others
      - Howard Parker (The view from the Boys) and Cohen and Robbins (Knuckle Sandwich)
        
        adopted a form of participant observation which was possible due to their role as youth workers.
    - - affects relationship and dynamic between researcher and participant - CAGE, power difference, stereotypes, prejudiced
  - - - unaware - honesty, validity, no consent, maintain cover
    - - aware - reliability, consent, impression management (Hawthorne Effect or Demand Characteristics)
    - - physical
      - psychological
    - - informed - right to withdraw, knowledge, affected by age and understanding, can be more honest or dishonest if they are fully aware
    - - often occurs during covert investigations - consent, harm, maintaining cover, rapport/trust, careers, etc
    - - anonymity - subject sensitivity, remove bias or subjectivity, more honest, peer pressure
    - - gaining this - honesty, validity, when leaving can cause psychological harm
    - - extra care and attention - defined by age, gender, disability, ethnicity, physical or mental health
  - - - theoretical perspective
        
        based on theoretical perspective - interpretivist v. positivist, feminist, functionalist, Marxist, etc
      - society's values
        
        social, political and economic climate - what is most important at that moment in time (climate change)
      - funding bodies
        
        bias of which topics should be studies and which are not worth the time/funding - unis, charities, gov, businesses, etc (what is benefit them the most)
      - practical factors
        
        time, geography, transport, accessibility
- - - - well known ones can provide lots of funds and allow for a very representative and indepth investigation
    - - more peoplecan be reached through social media, and thereare a lot more pre-made sample frames
    - - subject matters which are of great influence and importance to the participants will make them more honest and engaged in the research
    - - the longer the time used, often the more representative the research is as more data can be collected
    - - the less expenses a project has the easier it can be to find a funding body and complete the research
    - - the increased access to different people (social media, phones, petitions, email, etc) means that a wider range of sample and research methods can be used
  - - - overt
        
        informed consent it needed, and allows for honest and trust to be gathered with the participants
      - covert
        
        people are less likely to create impression management (Hawthorne Effect, demand characteristics)
    - - allows for legality of research and for people to keep anonymity as well as preventing the research from affecting their daily lives
    - - anonymity of research can help to gain consent and prevent peer pressure from affecting the results of the research.
    - - laws in place to protect people - informed consent, school gatekeepers, etc
  - - - can be compared easily, and allows for patterns and findings to be used to help give evidence for policies and other practices.
      - often more objective and unbiased with the sample
    - - allow for greater understanding and empathy which often allows for more honest answers and validity
    - - easy to compare - standardised pre-coded questions, neutral and unchanging demeanor and
      - high reliability
    - - can access the participants feelings and motivations behind their actions and lives - high depth in answers
      - high validity