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Contemporary Urban Environments - Coggle Diagram
Contemporary Urban Environments
Urbanisation
Urbanisation
The growth in the proportion of people living in urban areas.
Can be due to
rural --> urban migration
. 'Pull' factors of the city e.g better healthcare and education, better jobs with better pay. More interconnected.
Closely associated with shifts in structural changes to a city, e.g rise of industrial capitalism. And shifts in social behaviours, such as the use of social media.
Natural increase
is also a cause of urbanisation- young adults who move to the city have children --> causes the population to rise.
Example of rapid urbanisation -->
Beijing, over 45 from 1970-2015 years, increased from a population of 4.4 million to 20.4 million.
Most urbanisation regions globally
Caribeean and Latin America
Europe
North America
Suburbanisation
This is the migration of people from city centres to the outskirts of cities.
Urbanisation --> causes cities to become more crowded, people seek the space and quieter nature of the suburbs.
A complex pattern of the wealthy moving to the suburbs, and the poor being left behind. Can cause ethnic and economic segregation.
Can cause
urban sprawl
--> to limit urban sprawl, a green belt can be put in place. For example, the Green Belt around England's biggest cities e.g London, Manchester etc.
This doesnt always work though as developers can build on the land.
How can this impact social and economic wellbeing?
Counter Urbanisation
The movement of people out of the city to the surrounding villages and rural areas.
People may leave cities due to high property prices and overcrowding.
This is more common in HICs than LICs. In HICs there are better transport links that allow people to still commute to the city but live in rural areas.
The UK Government also promoted this movement through its green belt and New Towns policy
(New Towns Act of 1946)
. The green belt policy restricted growth within the city boundaries, and forced developers to look just outside of the city boundaries for other villages to develop. These new towns have developed into
commuter towns or suburbanised villages
, also known as dormitory towns as people sleep and live in those towns but work elsewhere. Milton Keynes is a good example near to London.
Effects
Country villages are becoming increasingly suburbanised, they can therefore grow quickly and lose their original character and charm.
Inner city areas are left with derelict buildings, struggling shops and a cycle of decline.
Cities can shrink in size, and their demographic and economy can undergo significant change.
Urban Resurgence
The movement of people back to the city centre.
New developments make a city more attractive and so attract a new population, causing a surge of people back to the city.
Case Study:
Longbridge, Birmingham
An example of
Urban Regeneration
which caused urban resurgence.
After the closure of MG Rover, a car manufacturer in the local area, there was major urban decline and caused a crash in the local economy. MG Rover had been a huge source of employment and income for many people, and after the closure, only 1/4 of employees were able to find work after.
This caused a move of people out of the city in search of employment.
Caused poverty.
Caused a crash in the local economy.
1bn
development project to build a new town using the derelict buildings that used to make up MG Rover.
2000 new homes + 10000 new jobs.
Successful?
:smiley:
350 new homes
were built which are within walking distance from Longbridge
rail station
--> commuting to the city is easy and accessible and then the workers who go to work in London will bring the money back to the more local economy in Longbridge, growing the local economy.
New
college
built --> attracts young people. Increased access to education.
New Technology Park --> home to 60 businesses. Makes the city more attractive to businesses wanting to start up there. Also connects it with the city and has made Longbridge home to technological innovation.
The Austin Park
--> green spaces. Environmentally friendly. Cycle paths --> environmentally sustainable.
Youth centre
--> community, mental health, good for young people etc.
Unsuccessful?
:red_cross:
In terms of
economic sustainability
, as the economy grows, so will the house prices, and this could mean that the area becomes less desirable to young people, who will move out due to being unable to afford housing.
Characterised by... upwardly mobile young people, university students, and couples.
MegaCities
Urbanisation has increased the number of big cities in the world.
Megacity = city with pop.
10million+
More than
2/3
of megacities are in developing nations, e.g
Lagos, Nigeria.
28 megacities in 2014, in contrast to in 1950, only two megacities: New York and Tokyo.
In 2030 --> 41 megacities.
Role: companies choose to build their headquarters in megacities, because they have a high number of skilled workers and good transport links e.g international airports. Therefore they have national and international importance.
Urban Policy
Longbridge
is an example of a Regional Development Agency.
Urban Policy basically refers to the British Government in the late 70s and 80s, trying to regenerate cities which were in decline.
Big Case Study: the
London Docklands.
(separate mind map)
In the
1980s
in an effort to
reverse
the process of
inner city decline
the UK government set up
Urban Development Corporations
(known as UDCs). The aim of these UDCs was to regenerate inner city areas with large amounts of derelict and unused land by taking over planning responsibility from local councils.
Developed countries have experianced
Deindustrialisation
since the 1970s.
Developing countries can produce goods at cheaper prices and lower labour costs (usually due to less human and workers rights)
so the developed world struggled to compete with this so industry moved from the developed world to the developing, industrialised world such as Singapore or Taiwan.
Deindustrialisation saw in the UK, unemployment of up to
3 million
in 1983.
Deindustrialisation did see the movement of developed countries away from the secondary to the tertiary sector.
'Rise of the Service Economy'
Decentralisation
Land prices increase in city center, businesses move to the suburbs. Dereliction in the city center and can lead to poverty.
Other examples of regeneration schemes:
Partnership Schemes (2010-present)
Improving conditions in deprived areas, building new homes etc.
Example: Liverpool City Region Local Enterprise Partnership - established to increase business activity and create new jobs.
Government working with private companies to provide financial support and expertise to redevelopment projects.
Enterprise Zones (1981-present)
Established in areas with high unemployment
Reducing tax in a given area on land and corporations to attract start up businesses.
Good: by 1990, EZs housed over 5000 companies and employed over 100000 people.
Bad: lower tax just meant that many already established companies took advantage and moved their company there, leaving less room for actual start up companies that would employ more people and didn't already have staff.
World Cities
Economic growth in oil rich countries e.g Nigeria, has allowed cities like Lagos o be nearing achieving world city status.
Many banking companies (HSBC, Lloyds) have headquarters in World Cities, such as London and New York, making them centres of financial leadership.
A world city is a city that has political and financial influence over the whole world, e.g. London and Sydney. Most are in the developed world.
Home to world renowned universities.
Training skilled workers.
Attract visitors internationally. Centres of culture and media and communications.
World cities drive regional national and global economies, support prosperity and create jobs.
They are productive because of
agglomeration economies
--> the presence of many people, services and industry in one area increases productivity.
City productivity and city population have a correlation. Creative and skilled and educated workers are pulled into cities.
Role they play in global economy
Important in global politics. E.g hosting G8 or COP conventions where countries can come together to form agreements and they use their influence to drive trade deals and develop economic links.
Processes associated with Urban Growth
Technological
increase in high tech industries --> growth of the economy, and importance of urban area.
Example: Silicon Valley in California- attracting more people to the city because of high payed and specialised jobs.
Hotspots for technological advancement
Demographic
More ethnically diverse
Younger urban population
Social
Cultural expression e.g museums and art galleries
Increased diversity
Higher living standards
Benglaru
--> Growing inequality between the middle class and lower castes – particularly obvious with
housing: wealthy live in gated suburbs and the poorest in slums
Also, as more people move into the city, pressure is put on housing. colonial properties are being converted into luxury new homes
Increasing house prices force residents to move elsewhere
Can cause an increase in slums and shanty towns--> poverty and low quality of life. Economic and social segregation.
Political
Increased inequality.
New political movements
Political reform to address problems with problems that affect urban life e.g poor sanitation, quality of housing and sanitation in factories.
economic
More job opportunities, with higher pay due to businesses becoming more profitable.
Increase in commercial farming --> loss of primary sector, rise of secondary and tertiary.
Growth of businesses
Benglaru, India
--> Bangalore was the fastest-growing Indian metropolis after New Delhi between 1991 and 2001, with a growth rate of
38%
Increase in
informal sector
due to urbanisation.
The growing informal sector is
unregulated and untaxed
– the government misses out on tax money that could be spent on
services and infrastructure projects
Environmentally
also, in a city like Benglaru, which is estimated to have
less than 5% green space in 2020
(vegetation in the city) 'Death By Concrete', can affect the weather, making it hotter. Negative social impacts to this.
Urban Form
Post Modern Cities
Economy
Globalised economy
Economy of consumption
Dominated by services and high tech sectors
Planning
Many stakeholders voices/ideas considered
Space is fragmented with focus on form over function
Government
Services provided by public sector rather than private
Unfettered movement of international finance
Partnerships between public and private sectors
Structure
Messy, multi purpose structures
High tech corridors
Fringe/edge cities
Architecture and Landscape
Different styles juxtaposed
Symbolism and meaning incorporated
Historic and Cultural recognition
Culture and Ethnicity
Social polorisation
Large diversity
Highly fragmented
Urban Climate
Urban Wind
Average wind speed in cities is lower
tall buildings create friction which slows wind
Some areas are totally sheltered from wind by tall buildings
Venturi (canyon) effect
Wind tunnels created by channeled streets lined with tall buildings
Wind turbulence is more common because wind hits the face of a building and so some is deflected down and around the sides and over the top and when these winds hit the ground they cause vortices.
Urban Heat Island Effect
Urban areas are warmer than surrounding rural areas
Air pollution
Increases cloud cover over the city and creates a pollution dome. This TRAPS heat and keeps it inside and reflects it back to the surface of the city
Heat from human activity
Cars, factories, offices and central heating and people themselves all release heat.
Absorption of Heat by Urban surfaces
Concrete, brick and tarmac surfaces, store and absorb heat during the day as they have a LOW albedo. This heat is then released during the cooler nights as long wave radiation which warms the air
Less evapotranspiration
Less green spaces, and little surface water to evaporate. Little transpiration. Evapotranspiration uses heat energy so less evapotranspiration means higher temperatures
STRONGER AT NIGHT because rural areas cool down at night and urban surfaces release heat at night.
Stronger when there is an anticyclone because that means there is clear skies and no clouds so more heat is radiated to the surface.
Weather Patterns
rains more often in urban areas than in countryside
Convection rainfall, warm moist air rises and cools and falls
Warm air can hold more water
More condensation nuclei for clouds to form
Urban Drainage
Catchment Management
Hard Engineering
Diversion spillway
Dams and resevoirs
Leves
Channel straightening
Expensive!! Does not work with the natural environment
Soft Engineering
Flood plain zoning
Afforestation
Riparian Buffers
River Restoration
River Skerne, Darlington
water quality improved
wetland restoration
Channel straightening removed - meanders restored
Land use zoning - reduces flood risk
Trees and plants planted to increase interception and reduce runoff
Looking at the drainage basin as a whole.
can provide opportunities for
restoration of rivers and restoration of biodiversity
where previously this has been lost in urban areas, whilst also creating a cleaner environment for locals to be around
SUDs
--> Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems
Lambdrove, Cambourne
Detention ponds
Reduces runoff
Permeable paving
Increases infiltration, reduces runoff
Waterbutts
SUDs can create habitats
Success? :smiley:
Increased biodiversity due to use of vegetation to absorb surface runoff
10% cheaper than conventional drainage and cheaper than original expected costs for construction of SUDs
Area visually improved
Water quality improved.
Created green space, employment opportunites for their construction and better aesthetics for locals.
Urban drainage is just the way in which water moves through and leaves an urban area.
Hydrographs
In urban areas, hydrographs show a short lag time due to high surface runoff, wheras rural has a long lag time and more infiltration due to permeable ground, causing through flow.
Basically, precipitation is higher in urban areas due to more condensation nuclei from air pollution.
Urban Waste and Its Disposal
Sustainable Urban Development
LA and Mumbai
Social and Economic Issues Associated with Urbanisation
(Immigration in Britain)
Housing
Education
Children will go to school nearest them in their area and as a result many schools have become dominated by one ethnic group (London) This has an impact on the curriculum due to religion and language barriers so children may recieve less good education and fewer employment opportunties.
Economic
Health
Poor quality of built environment in inner city derelict areas where ethnic minorities tend to live and so poorer health
Religion
Gender
Women recieve less opportunties and so are disadvantaged in terms of possible employment
Food Culture
Language
Host country language needs to be adopted quickly otherwise it will act as a barrier to integration and restrict employment and educational opportuntities
Urban Air Quality
Photochemical smog
Particulate pollution
Strategies to reduce air pollution
Pedestrianisation
Legislation
The UK Clean Air Act of 1956 and 1968
Reduced domestic pollution by introducing smoke control areas where only smokeless fuels could be burned and reduced industrial pollution by introducing the use of taller chimneys so pollutants are dispersed higher into the atmosphere
Congestion charging
Public transport imporvements
Alternative fuels
Economic Inequality and Social Segregation
