Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

TOPIC 5. ORAL COMMUNICATION - Coggle Diagram

- - - - As Juan Goytisolo (2001) stated in his speech on defending threaten cultures at the Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible heritage of Humanity,
        
        we must first examine our historical knowledge of both oral and written cultures so as to provide ourselves a cultural identity in society.
        
        the period which encompasses primary orality is consequently ten times the length of the era of writing.
        
        1 more item...
    - - 17th c
        We have found mainly two references to the oral component as a link to language teaching in the seventeenth century with a strong religious component.
        
        He states indirectly the role of the oral component to the religious issue when saying that modern languages are degenerate forms of an original tongue that was taken from us at the Tower of Babel.
        
        It is worh pointing out that in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the status of Latin changed from a living language that learners needed to be able to read, write in, and speak to a dead language which was studied just as an intellectual exercise.
        
        1 more item...
      - 18th
        It was not until the eighteenth century that modern languages began to enter the curriculum of European schools and progressively developed from grammatical to more communicative approaches focusing on oral skills, thus listening and speaking.
        
        A progressive account of the development in the treatment of the oral component from the eighteenth century on is the aim of our next section.
    - - As we have mentioned above, a grammar translation method was the dominant foreign language teaching method in Europe from the 1840s to the 1940s. However, even as early as the mid-nineteenth century , there was a greater demand for ability to speak foreign languages, and various reformers began to reconsider the nature of language and of learning.
        
        Among them, we may mention an Englishman, T. Pendergast, and two Frenchmen, C. Marcel and F. Gouin. However, their ideas did not become widespread because they were outside of the established educational circles.
        
        One of the most relevant early contributions to a communicative approach concerning the oral component with no religious links emerged from an empirical study carried out by François Gouin in his work L’art d’enseigner et d’étudier les langue (1880). In his work, he gave an account of the relevance of the oral component when learning languages. He describes his own efforts to learn German by learning grammar with no success at all. Then, during a visit to France, he observed how his nephew, who six months before did not utter a word in German, could hold on in a conversation with logical sequences just by watching German workers in his village. This convinced him of the inefficiency of his own methods as the child became active by conversing with adults with no grammar lessons. What he had done, according to Gouin, was to continually ask questions, climb all over the place, and watch what the workers were doing. Back at home, the child reflected on his experience, and then recited it to his listeners, ten times over, with variations, attempting to produce a logical sequence of activities. To Gouin, the learner then progresses from experience, to ordering that experience, and then to acting it out. This conception of teaching presents language in concrete, active situations, as communicative approches account for nowadays.
        
        1 more item...
    - - early to mid -1900s,
        
        In the field of psychology, in the early to mid -1900s, behaviorism has had a great effect on language teaching studying animal behaviour first, and moving towards human behavior later. One of the most famous of these scientists was Skinner who worked on oral skills in language learning. He theorized that a child repeats words and combinations of words that are praised and thus learns language. Behaviorist believed that languages were made up of a series of habits, and that if learners could develop all these habits, they would speak the language well.
        
        Link Title
        
        From these theories arose the audio-lingual method, which is based on using drills for the formation of good language habits by means of oral skills such as listening and speaking.
        
        Three Freash Ways to Use the Audio Lingual Method in class
      - mid to late twentieth century
        
        During the mid to late twentieth century, great changes took place after World War II, with particular influence on language teaching and learning. Since language diversity greatly increased, there were more opportunities for international travel and business, and international social and cultural exchanges.
        
        1950s and 1960s
        
        As a result, renewed attempts were made in the 1950s and 1960s which constituted the starting point for more communicative approaches in language teaching.
        
        4 more items...
  - - - an approach to emerged both in Europe and North America focusing on the work of anthropologists, sociologists, and sociolinguists on foreign and second language teaching. In the 1980s, the rapid application of a teaching tasks system broken down into units gave prominence to more interactive views of language teaching, which became to be known as the Communicative Approach or simply Communicative Language Teaching . Besides, language was considered as social behaviour, seeing the primary goal of language teaching as the development of the learner’s communicative competence
        
        and strategies for effective communication.
        
        Learners were considered to need both rules of use to produce language appropriate to particular situations,
        
        Starting with Chomsky (1957), other scholars such as Hymes (1972), Halliday (1970), Canale and Swain (1980) levelled their contributions and criticisms at structural linguistic theories claiming for more communicative approaches on language teaching,
        
        1 more item...
- - - - 3.2. Elements governing oral discourse are approached in terms of a communicative event,
        
        which is described as a sociocultural unit where the components of which serve to define salient elements of context within which the text becomes significant.
        
        Also, communicative behavior is not limited to the creation of oral texts, and correspondences are likely to be found concerning paralinguistics, kinesics and proxemics in oral interaction.
        
        3.1.1. Linguistic elements
        
        1 more item...
        
        3.1.2. Non-linguistic elements
        
        3 more items...
    - - a communicative competence theory accounts for rules of usage and rules of use in order to get a proficiency level in a foreign language within the framework of social interaction, personal, professional or educational fields
        
        3.2.1.
        Then, rules of usage are concerned with the language users’ knowledge of linguistic or grammatical rules (linguistic or grammatical competence)
        
        Language is defined as an abstract set of principles that specify the relations between a sequence of sounds and a sequence of meanings, and is analysed in terms of four levels of organization.
        
        Language is defined as an abstract set of principles that specify the relations between a sequence of sounds and a sequence of meanings, and is analysed in terms of four levels of organization.
        
        4 more items...
        
        3.2..2.
        whereas rules of use are concerned with the language users’ ability to use his knowledge of linguistic rules in order to achieve effectiveness of communication, that is, discourse, sociolinguistic and strategic competences.
        
        Students, then, are intended to apply their linguistic knowledge to how to construct discourse within the textual competence according to three main rules of
        
        1 more item...
        
        1 more item...
        
        1 more item...
        
        To sum up, the learning of a foreign language is intended to broaden the students’s intellectual knowledge as well as to broaden their knowledge on other ways of life and social organization different to their own. Furthermore, the aim is to get information on international issues, to broaden their professional interests and consolidate social values to promote the development of international communication.
        
        3.2.3. Conversational Studies.
        
        Conversation is the main means by which humans communicate, and is thus vital for full and rich social interaction. An obvious definition of conversation is a process of talking where at least two participants freely alternate in speaking as they interact with their social environment..
        
        Conversational studies demonstrate how spoken English adapts to incorporate many functions and accommodates a vast variety of registers and contexts in a speech act. Cultural influence on speech and the implications of this for the second language speaker are two main tenets within current speech and communication theories.
        
        However, the analysis of conversation is not a simple matter. It has been taken up by pioneering sociologists known as ethnomethodologists.
        
        1 more item...
- - - - Also, they deal with the terms coined in the 1960s by the philosopher J. L. Austin, in How to Do Things with Words (1962), to refer to acts performed by utterances which conveyed information, in particular to those which require questions and answers as a formulaic speech.
        
        Link Title
        
        http://www.gavinjensen.com/blog/category/Philosophy+of+Language
        
        Firstly, representative speech act, where speakers are committed in varying degrees to the truth of the propositions they have uttered, by means of swearing, believing, and reporting. Secondly, directives, where speakers try to get hearers to do something by commanding, requesting, or urging. Thirdly, commissives, which commit speakers in varying degrees to courses of action by means of promising, vowing, and undertaking. Fourthly, declarations, whereby speakers alter states of affairs by performing such speech acts as I now pronounce you man and wife. Fifth, expressives, where speakers express attitudes, such as congratulating and apologizing.
        
        According to Austin (1962), in order to be successful, speech acts have to meet certain conditions. Thus, a marriage ceremony can only be performed by someone with the authority to do so, and with the consent of the parties agreeing to the marriage. Speech acts may be direct or indirect. For instance, compare Shut the door, please and Hey, it’s cold in here, both of which are directives.
        
        Also, according to Seaville and Troike
        PAGE 43
        
        2 more items...
- - - - This may be achieved by paraphrase, circumlocution, repetition, hesistation, avoidance, guessing as well as shifts in register and style.
        
        According to Canale and Swain (1980), strategic competence is useful in various circumstances as for instance, the early stages of second language learning where communicative competence can be present with just strategic and socio-linguistic competence.
        
        This approach has been supported by other researchers, such as Savignon and Tarone. Thus, Savignon (1983) notes that one can communicate non-verbally in the absence of grammatical or discourse competence provided there is a cooperative interlocutor. Besides, she points out the necessity and the sufficiency for the inclusion of strategic competence as a component of communicative competence at all levels
        
        as it demonstrates that regardless of experience and level of proficiency one never knows all of a language.
        
        Another criterion on strategic competence proposed by Tarone (1981) for the speaker to recognize a meta-linguistic problem is the use of the strategies to help getting the meaning across.
        
        Tarone includes a requirement for the use of strategic competence by which the speaker has to be aware that the linguistic structure needed to convey his meaning is not available to him or to the hearer. As will be seen later, strategic competence is essential in conversation and we argue for the necessity and sufficiency of this competence.
- - - - has recently published a document, Modern languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of reference, in which the acquisition of communicative and pragmatic competence in a second language is emphasised.
        
        Both contributed strongly to the development of ‘the communicative classroom’, increasing the emphasis on teaching the spoken language.
        
        Although students recognize the importance of developing communicative skills in the target language, they often have a passive attitude towards speaking in the classroom.
        
        Students generally have fewer problems in taking short turns, since they are required to give minimal responses to participate in a conversation with the teacher or classmates based on simple exchanges.
        
        They tend to be reluctant, however, to expose themselves in the classroom, making it very difficult to get them to speak at any length. My concern derives from the problem of how to actually get learners speaking in a meaningful way in the classroom.
        
        Moreover, one of the proposed models for school-leaving examination, is to get the students’competence in the foreign language to be assessed by means of an oral interview.
        
        1 more item...