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Literature Review - Fire Management: diverse knowledge, people, landscapes…

- - - - Co-creating Fire Knowledge for Community and Landscape Resilience
      - Carey et al. 2003 described the importance of western and Indigenous science systems working together in a respectful way.
    - - Given this likely development, there is an important role for social research to play in developing our understanding of the different communities' perspectives and knowledge of current and future needs for landscape-wide fire management and potential Indigenous-led or collaborative fire management arrangements. Research could explore existing knowledge-cultures and community relationships/network dynamics in select community groups, key areas. This knowledge may have practical implications for planning and developing future collaboraive initiatives.
  - - - Recognition of knowledge holders and community for their knowledge exchange. Payment, or exchange of skills of resources that can benefit a community more than money (eg. Access to Country)
      - Iterative learning (Freeman 2021); Ongoing
      - Interpersonal & trusting relationships. Neale et al. (2019) note the importance of DDW and non-Indigenous actors "establishing relationships of trust, obligation, and honesty"
      - Establishing and building trusting relationships built on recognition, respect and reciprocity (Costello & Cameron 2022).
    - - Smith, Neale and Weir (2021) note these barriers/obstacles Indigenous people must overcome are poorly understood in SE Aus = research need / GAP
        
        the revival of Indigenous fire management in nations such as Australia is highly contingent and depends upon routine persuasive labour and fragile intercultural diplomacy
      - Empirical studies analyze processes and obstacles to meaningful and respectful engagement with TOs (Freeman 2021; Neale 2019)
- - - - Safer Together ....
- - - - Rediscovery of Traditional Ecological Knowledge as Adaptive Management (Berkes 2000)
      - Berkes (2008) defined TK as a body of culturally transmitted knowledge and beliefs about the relationships of living beings (including humans) with one another and with their environment
      - McGregor (2004), drawing from multiple authors, further described TK as including a system of classification, a set of empirical observations about the local environment, and a system of self management that governs resource use. (in Mason 2012)
      - Cajete (1994) describes TK as known within all four aspects of being: mind, body, emotion, and spirit.
      - TK is built on factual observations and practical experiences within a historical context, guided by spiritual beliefs, and implemented through traditions and cultural stories, interpersonal teaching, and practice (Houde 2007).
    - - IFK is defined by Huffman (2013) as “fire-related knowledge, beliefs, and practices that have been developed and applied on specific landscapes for
        specific purposes by long time inhabitants”
        
        In a 2013 global review, Huffman identified 69 universal elements of IFK while concurrently emphasising such knowledge's highly differentiated and place-specific nature
      - “Within a broader movement of contemporary recognition and inclusion of Indigenous land management practices, the reintroduction of Indigenous fire knowledge (IFK) and practice for bushfire mitigation has entered the colonial public consciousness (Bennet & Edwards, 2021; Kimmerer & Lake, 2001; Robinson et al., 2021)” (Rodrigues et al., 2022)
      - IFK is a subset of Indigenous bio-cultural knowledge (Rodriguqes 2022)
- - - - some scholars view the rise of public participation methods as an extension of modes of social control - particularly through the instantiation of relatively prescriptive subject positions evident in deliberative and democratic practice - that maintain a distinction between, for example, 'publics' and 'experts' in ways that circumscribe and delimit 'public input' to participatory processes within technocratic discursive formations (cites Swyngedouw 2010; Thorpe & Gregory 2010; Jones et al 2011)
        
        eg. collaboration or participation of TOs that occurs on agency's terms maintains and extends history of control - reproduces power relations that exclude or undermine Indigenous leadership and self-determination.
  - - - Shift involves many questions. Requires an understanding of many aspects of different communities and human behaviour so that fire agencies can assist and empower people to manage their bushfire safety (Handmer & Haynes 2008)
      - 'Shared responsibility' (Victoria) of communities, agencies to mitigate fire risk, prepare and respond to fire
        
        "In the contexts of natural resource management (NRM) and disaster risk reduction (DRR), landholders are increasingly expected to take responsibility for issues which extend beyond property boundaries" (Edwards & Gill 2015)
      - Safer Together policy FW
    - - North American research agenda emerged at similar time to that in Aus. Leading scholars incl. McCaffrey, key book: People, Fire & Forests: a summary of wildfire social science
      - Australian research largely funded by Bushfire CRC & its establishment of new research programs into community self-sufficiency for fire safety. Intention is to translate social research findings to fire agencies, to influence practical implementation (Handmer & Haynes 2008)
  - - - Armitage et al. (2008) outline 5 thematic areas of adaptive co-management:
        
        Linking to policy
        
        Institutions, incentives, and governance: mostly happens over long periods of time (may take a decade for more for trust and social capital to contribute to social organizing of systems of governance). No recipe for trust-building, however, repeated interaction among SH groups and commitment to open communication key success factors. Trust can be eroded very quickly (see also: Neale et al. 2019).
        
        Careful analysis of institutional processes, structures, and incentives is vital, since the interactions of the various stakeholders are unlikely to be socially or politically neutral
        
        Learning through complexity
        
        Power asymmetries
        
        Assessment: monitoring, indicators, and
        outcomes
  - - - This alternative constructivist perspective that has been developed and explored by scholars "helps to explain how participatory practices shape (and are shaped by) social and political orders by highlighting the ways in which they mediate the construction of subjects and public issues in the making of participatory processes"
      - Participation has always been, and is continually, turning.
      - See pg. 13 for definition of co-productionist accounts of participation that has emerged and developed in STS and cognate disciplines up to 2008. Such work has begun to show that, far from being pre-given categories external to participatory practice, the subjects (publics and their concerns), objects (issues and material commitments) and formats (political ontologies and participatory procedures) that comprise the constituent elements of participation can more accurately be seen as both constructed through and emergent in the performance of carefully mediated, open-ended participatory experiments (see refs p. 13).
      - this approach to participation emphasises the following: (p 13-14
        
        publics as collectives
        
        Publics as mediated and emergent
        
        Participation as a collective experimental practices 'in the making'
        
        Participatory collectives as co-produced, material and diverse
        
        relates to Eriksen & Gill's re-introduction of 'everyday' values in bushfire decision-making
        
        Relational ecologies of participation
        
        Reflexivity and humiloity as key qualities of successful participation
        
        Participation as non-linear and multiply productive
        
        Participation as constitutive of science and democracy
  - - - Landcare as a case study of collective action, cross-boundary cooperation among rural landholders was popular in literature from mid-2000s to 2014ish. Studies document successes & benefits of Landcare movement in achieveing envrionmental, social and cultural outcomes (see....). Also work that critiques movement for .... (eg), documents challenges and one that states it's death/eventual decline (Tennant et al. 2012).
      - NRM at the Public-Private Interface (Bergmann & Bliss 2004) research explores the opportunities and challenges for cooperative fire management among public and private forest managers; Identified 5 themes affecting cross-boundary cooperation: land tenure, power, ideology, uncertainty and trust. These themes illuminate the complexity involved in cross-boundary cooperation
      - Cooperative Forest Management
        
        Meadow's et al (2016) - case study of CFM among small-agreage lifestyle landowners in SE QLD. "Effective landscape-level biodiversity conservation requires cooperative forest management across public and private-tenure boundaries."
        
        peer-mentoring networks have a critical role to play. Government should ideally play a background ‘‘out-of-sight’’ facilitator role.
      - Invasive Species Management (IPM)
        
        McKiernan's (2018) hypothesis that collective action for IPM may be weakened in rural-amenity landscapes where increasing numbers of land parcels of greater number of types of land management operations reduces mmgt incentives, hinders cooperation, and increases the likelihood of reinfestation (p. 1419)
        
        collective action and social capital
        
        to reveal tensions and complexity, to offer
        
        wisdom and to prompt reflection about approaching community pest management
        
        problems
      - Social relational approaches in natural resource governance research (see p. 16 Bodin & Prell). The relational approach in general, and the explicit consideration of social networks in particular, is increasingly drawing attention, particularly w respect to adaptive natural resource governance based on different forms of participation and co-management (cites Folke et al. 2005, Hahn et al. 2006)
    - - Wysong et al.'s (2022) case-study demonstrates the benefits and challenges associated with collaborative fire management for multiple partners with diverse objectives and values ("assets").
        One of few case-studies found thus far (02-23) that focuses on benefits of integrating Indigenous fire management practices across multiple tenures or "small landholdings".
    - - Disaster risk reduction (DRR), Fuels Management, Fire Mitigation
      - "In the contexts of natural resource management (NRM) and disaster risk reduction (DRR), landholders are increasingly expected to take responsibility for issues which extend beyond property boundaries" (Edwards & Gill 2015)
    - - Biophysical changes resulting from land-use change, climate change, human impacts, as well as shifting fire regimes further complicate landscape management and increase risk of intense bushfires (see ...
      - Coordinating collective action is increasingly complicated in rural-amenity landscapes (McKiernan 2018) - "coordinating IPM is complicated bu the melange of interests, motivations and skills help by newly arrived residents (Epanchi-Niell & Wilen 2015; Marshall et al 2016 - both cited in McKiernan 2018). Heterogenous landholders.
  - - - factors influencing success of integration include: Knowledge making and learning processes (focus of Ayre & Nettle 2015), the wider socio-political context, and the social relations of power in research.
      - This approach to integration is drawn from studies of collective action and knowledge co-production (Cornell et al., 2013), particularly participatory approaches involving stakeholders in decision-making & governance
- - - - Rodrigues et al. 2022 analysed contemporary Noongar and Western fire practitioner approaches within an Indigenous fire knowledge (IFK) framework to explore knowledge and aspirations for small reserves in the Southwest Australian Floristic Region (SWAFR) global biodiversity hotspot.
      - Nikolakis & Roberts (2020) present the five main concepts of IFM from literature and the relationships between them: . Contributes to development of a theory of IFM - a "complex global phenomenon". "This framework contributes to the development of a theory of IFM, examining the ontological, epistemological, and methodological issues within this evolving and dynamic phenomenon"
    - - Work of 'reviving' Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) and traditional/cultural burning (see Smith 2021; ... Neale??)
        
        The case study demonstrates the significance of interpersonal factors in the emergence and maintenance of fraught intercultural collaborations
        
        "Despite global optimism, insights from this research highlight how the revival of Indigenous fire management in nations such as Australia is highly contingent and depends upon routine persuasive labour and fragile intercultural diplomacy"
      - since Black Summer, dramatic increase in public interest and private investment in re-kindling Indigenous fire knowledge and supporting re-application of cultural land management practices.
      - "Increased understanding of Indigenous fire knowledge and increased Indigenous participation may provide insight into more appropriate and inclusive land management for fire mitigation" (Rodrigues et al. 2022)
      - Cultural burning and public sector practice in the ACT (Freeman et al. 2021)
        
        We demonstrate that rather than being restricted by public sector bureaucracy, the ACT cultural burning program has leveraged policy and entwined itself around the machinery of government in a way that accesses resources, creates opportunities and is slowly but surely changing public sector practice.
        
        Journey of iteratively learning
        
        more substantive measures are needed to recognise Traditional Custodianship if the current cultural burning program is to become a more substantial expression of Aboriginal peoples’ cultural land management
    - - Indigenous savannah burning
        
        McKemey et al. 2020 assert that "Indigenous fire management is experiencing a resurgence worldwide. Northern Australia is the world leader in Indigenous savanna burning, delivering social, cultural, environmental and economic benefits"
        
        undertook participatory action research and semi-structured interviews with rangers and Elders during 2016 and 2019 to investigate Indigenous knowledge and obtain local feedback about fire management
        
        project participants developed the Yugul Mangi Faiya En Sisen Kelenda (Yugul Mangi Fire and Seasons Calendar)
      - Carey et al. assert that Australia cannot be ‘fire-proofed’ but by using Indigenous fire management as a guide, the impacts of fire may be reduced- although wildfires will not be prevented. Approaches to fire management developed over many millennia by Indigenous Australians must be a major area of future research and associated policy development. Described the importance of western and Indigenous science systems working together in a respectful way.
  - - - "Using sustainable fire management as a case study, we compare a modernist approach to training, which educates landholders in the scientific and legislative aspects of NRM and DRR with the aim of persuading them towards particular decisions, with a relational framework which aims to develop new ways of knowing and being that recognises the mutually entwined trajectories of embodied humans, fire and land" (Edwards & Gill)
        
        Hotspots Fire Training Project - modernist program
        
        Kosciuszko to Coast (K2C)
  - - - Fire and biodiversity management in Victoria
        
        1998 DSE’s Parks Flora and Fauna Division, Forests Service and Fire Management combined with Parks Victoria to develop a unique cross-business/cross tenure approach to the management of fire for the conservation of biodiversity on public land
        
        This approach takes ecological metrics and characteristics as "value-free", objective scientific knowledge. Legacy of this approach pervades current thinking in institutions - where cultural/social values and traditional, local, practical knowledge is overlooked.
        
        A major feature of the approach is that of using the life history characteristics (vital attributes) of constituent flora and fauna species to determine appropriate, ecologically-based fire regimes for an area. This provides an objective, scientific basis on which to set clear and relatively simple ecological objectives and to develop ecologically sound fire regimes which can be monitored for their achievements of the desired outcomes.
        
        Interim Guidelines and Procedures for Ecological Burning on Public Land in Victoria
      - Either fuel reduction programs or commercial forestry can be used to achieve hazard reduction without excessive costs if spatial aspects of fire spread are taken into account (Loehle 2004)
    - - Neale et al (2019) notes "There are now good reasons to suggest not only that in some regions prescribed burning programmes are having marginal or negative effects on their ostensible objectives but also that the communities they serve have unrealistic understandings about humans’ technical ability to control fire." (cites Price et al. 2015 and Bowman et al 2013 - see note 22)
    - - Cross tenure fuel management planning:
        
        o be effective in managing the bushfire risk to communities, fuel management planning should be applied consistently across all land. The processes and standards described in this Guide are based on the Code of Practice for Bushfire Management on Public Land (DSE 2012). Using this Guide enables consistent fuel management planning across all land, both public and private.
  - - - Identifies 4 principles for effective TWFS
        
        TWFS has a systems approach toward the problem. For wildfire knowledge to produce the most actionable insights on wildfire problems it needs to take into account all knowledge dimensions (ecological, social, physical, political). Principle guides understanding of interconnectedness of all elements of WF system, holistic view of wildfire reality.
        
        TWFS identifies and responds to different types of needs and values of actors, including citizens and decision or policy makers.
        
        Listening, learning and communicating with end-users (Brunson and Baker 2016) to identify research needs & develop and deliver knowledge products that can be readily used
        
        Recognition that expertise comes in many forms, including the traditional fire knowledge (TFK) of indigenous and rural communities (Huffman, 2013) as well as experiential and operational knowledge (Tedim et al 2021, p. 3)
        
        TWFS engages multi-cross/trans disciplinary work - is boundary crossing. Pay attnt to the full range of scientific disciplines tat can provide insight into all parts of the system; during all phases (before, during, after an event) and at multiple scales (from local to national). Refers to need to integrate disciplinary research and build a comprehensive academic understanding of wildfire phenomenon
        
        TWFS includes the identification and evaluation of effective interventions (including procedures, behaviours and policies). Impotrant to assess the role of fire science on decision-making (Ferguson et al. 2016; Hunter 2016).
      - TWFS overarching characteristics (informed by a typology proposed by McNie et al. 2017)
        
        Knowledge production is outcome oriented - interested in the sustainabiliy of long-term implementation in diverse settings by engaging more interactive processes throughout knowledge production
        
        Scale is key characteristic
        
        TWFS supports the establishment of heterogeneous social networks, not only across academic disciplines byr also between diverse indivs, who may operate at different scales - global to local.
        
        More Het networks - brings variety of perspectives and knowledge to the table (MCNie 2017), which in turn, leads to innovative and socially acceptable solutions
        
        Long-term commitments to collaborative and trust-building partnerships also can help to reduce barriers to the use of wildfire science in decision-making
  - - - Forests Act 1958
      - Code of Practice for Bushfire Management on Public Land 2012
- - - - Mayer (2014) argues for a narrative theory of collective action