social class theoretical views

functionalism

society works best when there's a consensus over shared values
different forms of social stratification, eg social class, reflect this consensus

parsons (1961)

in all societies, some individuals are better than others at achieving things that are regarded as worthy of reward according to the value consensus (ascribed roles)
those in highly regarded occupations & who are seen as important, eg entrepreneurs & executives, deserve the highest rewards

davis & moore (1945)

stratification is functionally necessary
does 2 things = allocates the right people to the most important roles & ensures people in these roles perform them to the highest standards
argue we can tell which positions are most important by 2 factors = functional uniqueness & the degree of dependence on others

criticism = tumin (1953)

may not be consensus about rewards
assume only a small number of people have the unique talents to perform top jobs

new right

agree with functionalists that inequality is necessary for society
more interested in the concept of choice & freedom

saunders (1990)

unlike functionalists, doesn't see social stratification as an inevitable part of society
but, argues a society of social equality would only be possible if considerable force was used, eg threat of death/imprisonment
this would ensure that everyone did their jobs to the best of their abilities, as they wouldn't be motivated by economic rewards
a degree of inequality is desirable & functional in order to motivate people to compete, as long as everyone has an equal opportunity to take part

murray (1984)

us government policies of providing welfare benefits were creating a dependency culture where poor people had no motivation to better themselves
this created an underclass of people trapped at the bottom of society
visited britain too & found evidence of this occurring there

evaluation of murray

most people without jobs & on benefits want to work & earn a decent living
only focuses on those at the bottom of society & doesn't look at the growing gap between the rich & poor

marxism

society is in conflict between the bourgeoisie who control everything & own means of production, & the proletariat who work for the bourgeoisie
the bourgeoisie are able to maintain their position of power through control of the law, the police and other
forms of authority

marx (1883) = capitalism suffers from multiple problems which will eventually lead to its downfall

polarisation of social classes = the divide between the working class & capitalists would grow steadily wider as the bourgeoisie tried to drive down wages & increase profits
alienation = workers won't be able to find any satisfaction in their work as they have no control, so are encouraged to find satisfaction in consumer items
economic crisis = capitalist economies tend to suffer from periodic crises, as boom periods are followed by recessions

he also argued that once the proletariat threw off their 'false class consciousness' & realised the nature of their exploitation, they had the potential to overthrow capitalism as their workers make up the majority, resulting in communism replacing capitalism

braverman (1974)

proves marx's prediction about polarisation
many 'middle-class' workers have been de-skilled
therefore, many are reduced to the same class position as the proletariat, known as proletarianisation

neo-marxism

gramsci (1971)

developed concept of 'hegemony' to explain why the working class have not risen up in revolution
the bourgeoisie rarely need to use force to exert power, as they rule through persuasion
hegemony = using cultural & political means to encourage enough of the proletariat to side with the bourgeoisie, to ensure stability of the economic system
involves using institutions such as the media & education to control people's minds

evaluation

largely dismissed the classes who sit between the bourgeoisie & proletariat
capitalist societies seem to have flourished & have proven successful

weberianism

saw inequalities as based on the struggle between different groups to secure resources such as wealth, but status & power were also resources that could be unequally distributed
suggested 3 dimensions to social stratification: class, status & party
market situation = members of a social class receiving similar economic rewards

class

weber defined this as a group who share a similar market situation & life chances
added to marx's ideas on an upper & lower class by suggesting further divisions within these groups
as a result, he suggested 4 main social classes in capitalist society:
the propertied upper class = wealthy big business owners
the property-less white-collar workers = better market situation than manual workers (form a middle class)
the petty bourgeoisie = owners of small businesses
the manual working-class = poorest market situation

status = the distribution of social honour

sometimes people with a common status situation may form a stronger group identity than those who identify as part of a social class
may be linked to economic or class position, but may also derive from other things such as ethnicity (eg someone of an ethnic minority may be middle-class, but have low status because of discrimination)
while social class may be relatively unimportant for many people as a source of identity, people are usually very aware of their status situation & tend to identify with others of a similar status
within classes, distinctions of status may be important, even though class & status are closely linked

party = a group concerned with exercising power or influencing decision-making

could include pressure groups such as the rspca, who push for animal rights
some are linked to class interests, eg trade unions represent groups within the working class, however they often draw their members from all social classes
some may also represent specific status groups, eg stonewall campaigns for lgbt people

evaluation

marxists would argue this approach obscures the importance of class divisions in capitalist societies
however, has had positive influence on the development of multi-class models, eg the hope-goldthorpe scale

feminism

highly critical of traditional sociological theories of class for neglecting women & gender inequalities

abbott (1990)

women's experiences of work are different to men's, eg more likely to carry a dual burden of paid work & unpaid domestic labour
the fact that women have lower rates of absolute mobility because they have less chance of reaching top jobs (glass ceiling) helps to boost men's chances of upward mobility
criticised goldthorpe's study of social mobility as it did not include the experiences of women

roberts (2011) = we can no longer assume that women share a class position with their male partners, as women are increasingly choosing to remain single even when they become mothers, & divorce is more common

postmodernism

argue that class is losing its significance in contemporary society
in the 21st century, people see themselves much more as individuals rather than as part of a social class

pakulski & waters (1996)

in advanced capitalist societies, people are stratified by cultural & not economic differences
people now group themselves together according to symbolic values

beck (1992) = discusses the term 'risk society'

means that the central problem of society is no longer creating & distributing wealth, but of managing the risks created by science & technology
argues such risks affect everyone, therefore people's awareness of social class has diminished
people have become individualised and concerned with their own interests

westergaard & resler (1976)

there's little evidence of class divisions in british society disappearing
such inequalities could only be understood as a result of the way the capitalist system operates