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Chemistry Notesssss, Click to see sublimation diagram, Pic of imortant…
Chemistry Notesssss
Section 1: Matter- Structures and Properties
Chapter 1: Experimental Chemistry
Part 1: experimental design
Measuring Physical properties
Measurement of Time
The SI unit for measuring time is
seconds(s)
Other common units are
minute(m)
and
hour(h)
The accuracy of the
analogue stopwatch
and
electronic stopwatch
(MU) is
±0.1
and
±0.01
seconds respectively
Measurement of Temperature
The SI unit for temperature is
kelvin(k)
Degrees celsius(°C)
is also commonly used
Kelvin is usually converted to Degrees Celsius by
adding 273 to the temperature in °C
How is temperature measured?
1.Mercury or alcohol thermometer
(MU)
Measures temperatures of liquids or reaction mixtures
Measures temperatures ranging from
-10°C to 110°C
Has an accuracy of
±0.5°C
2.Data Logger
Connected to a temperature sensor
More accurate than the mercury or alcohol thermometer
Can record data continuously over a period of time
Measurement of length
The SI unit for length is the
Metre(M)
Other commonly used units are
Milimetre(mm)
,
Centimetre(cm)
or
Decimetre(Dm)
How to measure length?
1.
Metre Rule
(Accuracy of
±0.1cm
)
2.
Measuring tape
(Accuracy ranging from
±0.1cm to ±0.5cm
)
Measurement of Mass
The SI unit for mass is the kilogram(kg)
Other commonly used units include Grams(g) and Tonne(t)
How to measure?
1.Beam balance
(±0.01g)
2.Electronic balance
(±0.01g)(MU)
Measuring Volumes of liquids
The SI unit for volume is
cubic metres (m³)
Other units include:
Cubic decimetres(dm³)
1m³ = 1000dm³
Cubic centimetres(cm³)
1dm³ = 1000cm³
How to measure Volume?
There are 5 main apparatus are chosen depending on the
volume
and
accuracy
needed which include(MU):
1.Beaker
(unFixed volumes)
Used to
estimate
the volume of a liquid, e.g. approximately 100cm³ or 250cm³
Least accurate
of all the measuring apparatus
Accuracy generally is (±1)
2.Measuring cylinder
(unFixed volumes)
More accurate than a beaker
Measures up to the
nearest 0.5cm³
3.Burette
(unFixed volumes)
Can accurately measure the volume of a liquid to the
nearest ±0.05cm³
Measurements are taken from
2 decimal places
and not just 3sgf.
The burette is a
long skinny
instrument that is the most accurate instrument out of the 5.
There is a
tap
at the bottom that allows the user to control the flow of the liquid
4. Pipette
(Fixed volumes)
Able to measure accurately up to
0.1cm³
of liquid
Can accurately measure out
fixed volumes
such as 20.0cm³ and 50cm³
NEVER
use the pipette to measure odd volumes of liquid such as 34.0 or 63.5
5. Volumetric flask
(Fixed volumes)
Measures accurate fixed volumes that are larger than a pipette like 100cm³ and 250cm³
(Virtually no other differences except that it exists)
Parallax error
Can be avoided very easily by looking at the
concave and convex meniscus
and reading the value off of it.
Occurs when you do not align the position of your eye at the top/bottom of the meniscus of the liquid when reading the measurement
Collecting, drying and measuring volumes of gases
(a) Methods of collecting gas
The methods of collecting gases rely on
2 physical properties
that the gas has:
Solubility
: whether a gas will dissolve/ is soluble in water
Density
: How dense the gas is compared to air
Take that the
relative molecular mass of air is always 30
All the must-know gases:
Remember
HOC CHS A
:
Where HOC is insoluble in water and CHS A is.
I'm too lazy to resize and make it readable so check your notes you hippy
The
3 main methods
of
collecting
gases are:
1.Displacement of water
(Must learn to draw)
The
density
of the gas does not matter. Used to collect gases that are
insoluble
in water.
Is the
most reliable way
out of the three as you can aga aga see how much gas is collected
Can only collect
Hydrogen, Oxygen and Carbon dioxide
as they are the only insoluble gases(L ikr)
2. Downward delivery
Used to collect gases that are
denser than air(30) and soluble in water
Gas collected usually
cannot be seen
if it is colorless so displacement of water is always better
Can collect
Chlorine, hydrogen Chloride, sulfur dioxide,
oxygen and Carbon dioxide
3. Upward delivery
Used to collect gases that are
less dense than air(30) and soluble in water
Gas collected usually
cannot be seen
if it is colorless so displacement of water is always better
Can only be used to collect
Ammonia
and Oxygen
How to Measure the volume of gases?
Gas Syringes
are an instrument that can be used to measure the amount of volume of a gas.
They can measure up to
100cm³
of gas
They are useful in measuring
the rate of gas produced
in experiments on the
speed of reactions
(b) Methods for drying gases(Must learn to draw all of them)
1.Concentrated sulfuric Acid
(chad)
Involves the
complete submergence*
of
non-alkaline gases
into concentrated sulfuric acid (Liquid)
Can dry all(loosely thrown in) gases except for
Ammonia
because it is an alkaline gas.
Note to self:
The "Gas in" tube
must be drawn completely submerged in the acid
to ensure that
all the gas is submerged
first before exiting the "gas out" tube to ensure maximum efficiency
Ammonia will react with the sulfuric acid so you should never use it as a drying agent for ammonia
2. Quicklime(calcium oxide)
Involves
non-acidic gases
passing through
solid alkali Quicklime
and drying in the process.
Can be used to
mainly dry Alkaline gases
like
Ammonia
Heating is involved before use to
increase the rate of evaporation of moisture
in the
drying agent
.
3. Fused(Heated) calcium Chloride
Can be used to dry neutral, acidic and alkali gases
except for Ammonia
Involves pushing the
non-ammonia gas
through solid calcium chloride which leads to it drying
Heating is involved before use to
increase the rate of evaporation of moisture
in the
drying agent
.
Part 2: Methods of purification and Analysis
Obtaining Pure substances from mixtures(Quick recap)
Element:
A substance that
cannot be broken down into simpler substances
by physical or chemical means
Is considered a pure substance if it is
only made of one element
and
does not contain other substances
Compound:
A substance that
contains 2 or more elements chemically combined together
Is considered a pure substance if it
does not contain other does not contain more than 1 molecule
Mixture:
A mixture is made up of two or more substances that are
not chemically combined together
Is not considered a pure substance in any way
Separation Methods and techniques
1.Solid-Solid mixtures
Soluble + insoluble solid
Suitable solvent and filtration(involves solubility of solid)
Involves an extra step in filtration where you pour a solvent in
which one solid is soluble while the other isn't
Example: Pouring distilled water in a mixture of salt and rice to dissolve the salt first before filtering it out
The filtrate can also undergo Evaporation to dryness if you want to obtain the solid that dissolved after filtration
Two soluble solids
Don't even me ask how to get it
Two insoluble solids
Magnetic attraction(Involves magnetism of substances)
Involves using a
magnet
to
separate magnetic substances from non-magnetic
Can separate Iron flakes and sodium chloride
Sieving(involves size of particles)
Involves the use of a
sieve with suitable pore size
to separate a mixture of
bigger and smaller particles
Can separate Coarse sand and fine sand
Sublimation
(involves ability to sublime and not)
Involves a set-up made to
separate a solid that sublimes
Can separate sand and iodine
2.Solid-Liquid mixtures
(Must lean to draw)
Insoluble Solid-Liquid Mixture(involves solubility of solid)
Filtration with filter funnel and paper(involves the size of particles)
The process of separating an
insoluble solid from a liquid
The solid that remains on the filter paper is the
residue
while the solution that passes through is the
filtrate
Note to self: To obtain a dry residue, you can press it between sheets of dry filter paper
The size of the
larger
insoluble solid will be
trapped
by the filter paper while the
smaller
liquid particles can
pass through
Soluble Solid-liquid mixture
*Crystallisation
(Gets Actual
Pure
solids)
Process of obtaining a
pure solid sample
from its solution
Steps to conduct crystallisation:
Step 3:Remove the evaporating dish from heat and
allow it to cool down
until crystallisation occurs
1 more item...
Step 4:
Filter
out the mixture to obtain the crystals as residue
Step 2: In a similar set-up as evaporation to dryness, heat the solution to
remove most of the solvent
until it becomes
saturated
1 more item...
Step 5:
Dry the crystals
on filter paper to get a dry sample of it.
Step 1:
Dissolve
the soluble solid in the solution
This process is
more effective
than evaporation to dryness in many ways:
Crystallization
only requires heating to saturation only
and
can be used for soluble solids which would decompose on heating
. Solids that are obtained through this way is
purer
than ETD
Evaporation to dryness
requires constant heating
and can only be used for solids which
do not decompose in strong heat
. Solids that are obtained this way are usually
impure
.
*Simple distillation
(Gets
Pure
liquids)
Used to separate a
pure solvent
from a solution. This occurs through vapour of the solvent when it
condenses
which
makes it pure
Small tips for simple distillation:
Thermometer bulb should be
just beside the side arm
leading to the condenser
Boiling chips
are paced in the round-bottom flask to ensure
smooth boiling
3.Condenser should be
sloped downwards
Water should enter the condenser from the
bottom
and leave from the
top
Volatile Liquids( Liquids with low boiling points) can be kept in the liquid state by
placing the receiver on ice
Evaporation to dryness
Process of
heating
a solid-liquid solution until all the
water has boiled away
to
obtain an impure sample
of the soluble solid
This is
not an effective way
of obtaining all soluble solids from its mixture as some substances or salts
decompose under strong heating
The solid obtained by evaporation to dryness is not always pure as soluble impurities will be left together after heating
For example: Sodium Chloride is the
only salt
that can be obtained through evaporation to dryness
3.Liquid-Liquid mixtures
Miscible(Mixtures that form a uniform solution) Liquid-liquid Mixture
*Fractional distillation
(Involves boiling points)
Used to separate two miscible liquids with
different boiling points
The liquid with the lower boiling point gets distilled first before the other liquid
Special feature: A
fractionating column
is attached to the round-bottom flask
containing glass beads
which
provide a larger surface area
for the vapourr to undergo
constant condensation and boiling
Look at notes for good examples of the diagram
Immiscible(Mixtures that separate into layers called phases) Liquid-liquid Mixture
*Separating funnel
(Involves density)
Take note:
Involve
precisive alignment
and the opening or closing of the tap to ensure complete separation occurs.
Must remember that the reason why the area closest to the tap is
narrow
is because it needs to ensure it is accurate
Used to separate
immiscible liquids
that
do not dissolve in each other
and form phases
Separating funnel diagram
Determing Purity
How can we tell if a substance is pure?
1.Check the melting point of the solid
A pure substance has a
fixed melting point
You can determine the melting point by using a set-up.
Thermometer must be
immersed
in the solid
A water bath(or a oil bath for >100°C) can be used to ensure
even temperature distribution
throughout the solid
Diagram
Impurities in the substance causes the melting point to
lower
and
take place over a range of temperatures
The
higher
the amount of impurities, the
lower
the melting point
2.Check the boiling point of the liquid
A pure substance should also have a
fixed boiling point
You can also determine the boiling point through a set-up:
Thermometer bulb must be placed above the boiling liquid
2.An opening allows the vapour to escape
3.If the liquid is flammable, a water bath can be used
Impurities in the substance causes the boiling point to
increase
and
take place over a range of temperatures
3.Perform Chromatography
Identify components present in a sample
Identify substances
Separate the components in a sample
Determine if its impur/pure
4. Chromotography
The method of separating
two or more components
that dissolve in the
same solvent
(Unfinished) Chromatogram set-up
The basic principles of Chromatography:
Pencil lead
should be used to draw the start line instead of pen as pen ink is
soluble
in the solvent while pencil lead
isn't
Identical
dyes will
display the same colour
and
travel the same distance
when they are in the
same solvent
To ensure
maximum separation
, the solvent line should be drawn near the edge of the chromatogram
The
more soluble
a component is inside a solvent, the
faster and further it will travel
To prevent the sample from dissolving before the experiment, the spots should be above the solvent.
The components travel a distance depends on the
relative solubility
of the component in the solvent
If only
one
spot obtained-> Substance is pure
If
more than one
spots-> Substance is impure
How to read and measure Rf values:
Rf value:
Retention factor
value
Both the solvent front and the spot depends on
how long the chromatography set-up was allowed to run
Formula
: Distance travelled by the subtsance(Spot) over Distance travelled by solvent
The Rf value of a substance
should never change
as it is the
ratio of the distance between the solvent and dot
as long as all
conditions remain the same
How can we identify colourless substances:
Locating agents
Sprayed onto chromatograms before dipping into solvent
The locating agent reacts with the colorless substances to form colored spots
Ultra-violet lights
Colorless substances under ordinary light appears colored under uv light
Part 3: Imagine needing me to make notes for you to learn kinetic particle theory you PIG!!!!!
(Chapter 2 sumary)
Important Concepts to learn that Jin Yi(L bozo guy) will forget
Definition:
Matter is a substance that has mass and occupies space
Matter is made up of
small particles
that are in
constant and random motion
Remember FAME
Forces of attract
Arrangement of part
Motion of particles
Energy of partcles
Solid - Gas
Deposition
Sublimation
Volatile Liquids exist and they evaporate very easily. Example: ethanol
Why boiling,melting and Freexing point got remain contsant?
Boiling and Melting point: Energy from heating is useed to overcome the force sof attractuion as it satrts to chnges tate
Freeking Point:Heat energy is released a s the particles are attacted to form a siold
Diifuusion s wat?????
particles of moventment from a region of higer concentration to a region od lower concentratin where th particles spread out evenly
definition: the process by which particles move freely to fill up any available space
2 things affect rate of diffusion
Temperature
Higher temperature -> Higher kinetic energy->move faster->increased rate of diffusion
Relative atomic mass
higher relative atomic mass-> more kinetic energy rewuired to move at same speed as lighter particles-> diffuse slower
Chapter 3: Atomic stucture
Part 1: Subatomic particles
Neutrons(N)
relative mass=1
charge/c=0
mass/kg=1.67x10^-27
Relative charge=0
Electrons(E)
Relative mass=1/1840
Charge/C=-1.60x10^-19
mass/kg=9.11x10^-31
Relative Charge=-1
Protons(p)
Relative mass=1
Charge/c=1.60x10^-19
mass/kg=1.67x10^-27
Relative charge=+1
Part 2:Chemical Notations (Nuclide notations)
X = Atomic symbol
b= proton (atomic number)
a = relative atomic mass
A
ㅤㅤX
b
The overall charge of an atom is 0 is both the amount of electrons and neutrons is equal
A specific amount of protons = unique element.
Part 3: Definitions of proton and Nucleon number
Proton Number(Z)
-Number of protons in an atom
-also known as a
atomic number
-Since atoms are neutral, number of protons= number of electrons
-Each element has a unique proton number
Nucleon number(A)
-Number of protons and Neutrons inside an atom
-Also known as mass number/relative atomic mass
example:
24
ㅤㅤMg
12
Part 4:Isotopes
Definition:
Isotopes are
atoms of the same element
with the
same number of protons but different number of neutrons
Properties:
Isotopes have the
same Chemical properties
but different
physical properties
They have the same Chemical properties due to:
They have the same number of electrons
Only electrons are involved in chemical reactions
They have different physical properties due to:
The difference in the relative mass of isotopes and other isotopes
This results in different densities, meting and boiling point
A chemical property is a characteristic of a particular substance that can be observed in a chemical reaction.
Uses:
Radioisotopes: Isotopes that emit high energy radiation
Example: a heart pacemaker
Part 5:Importance of atomic structure:
The number of electrons play an important role in determining the chemical properties of an element
The arrangement of electrons in an atom is known as the electronic structure
The positive atomic nucleus attracts the electrons by a electrostatic force
The electrons are arranged in regions known as electron shells
Part 6: Ways to represent atomic structure of atom
Dot and cross diagram
2nd shell
-Can hold up to 8 electrons
-is filled up after the 1st electron shell is filled
3rd shell
-Can usually hold up to 8 electrons or more
-is filled up after the 2nd shell
1st shell
-Can only hold up to 2 electrons
-is always filled first
-is closes to the nucleus
-has the lowest energy level
Example go check your notes Lewissssss
Electronic configuration
Expressed according to how many electrons that it can fit into a dot and cross diagram
Example: carbon
Electronic configuration of Crabon would be 2,4
Part 7: Valence atoms
Elements are
different from one another
in the number of
outermost electron
in its electron shells
Valence electrons(the outermost electrons) can be found in the outermost electron shell
Valence electrons are important as they help determine the
chemical properties of elements
Part 8: The periodic table
Elements arranged in order of
increasing
proton number
The Horizontal role indicates the
periods
The vertical columns of elements are called
groups
Elements with the
same number of valence electrons
belong to the
same group
and hence have the same
chemical properties
Part 9: Formations of ions(Cations/Anions)
What are Noble gases?
Noble gases are elements that belong to the
group 0
of the periodic table
Atoms of noble gases are
stable and unreactive
and exist in nature as
single atoms
(Not molecules or compounds)
Examples of Noble gases are: Helium, neon and Argon.
What is the Noble gas structure?
Noble gases have
full or complete or complete outer shells
Helium has a
duplet
electronic configuration whereas all other noble gases have a
octet
electronic configuration
What is an ion?
Ions are formed when an
atom loses or gains electrons
Ions are charged particles which can be
positively or negatively
charged
Positively charged ions are called
Cations
Cations are formed when
atoms of metal lose electrons
to form positively-charged ions
In this way, they achieve the
stable octet electronic configuration
Negatively charged ions are called
Anions
Anions are formed when
non-metals gain electrons from metals
to form negatively charged ions
They do this to gain a
stable octet electronic configuration
Chapter 4: Chemical bonding(Mostly practical TBH)
4.1 Ionic bonding: Transferring electrons
Ionic bonds are formed between
metals and non-metals
This is done through the
transfer of electrons from metals to non-metals
Metallic atom loses electrons to form positively charged ions called Cations
Non-metallic atoms gain electrons to form negatively charged ions called Anions
Oppositely charged ions
are
held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction
More info check notes
4.2 Covalent Bonding: Sharing electrons
A covalent bond is the bond formed by the
sharing of valence electrons
between two atoms of non-metals
Each atom in the molecule
achieves the stable electronic configuration
of a noble gas
Things to take note: Structural formula of covalent bonds must be remembered. Like O=O and H--H and Cl--Cl
Molecular formula is just H2O and CO2
Chapter 5.1: Structures and properties of Materials
Part 1: Ionic Bonding
1.Structure of Ionic compounds
Ionic Compound form
Giant ionic lattice structure
or
Giant crystal lattice
In a lattice, millions of ions like (Eg. Sodium and chlorine) are arranged in an
orderly manner
2.Bonding of Ionic compounds
These ions are held in place by
strong electrostatic forces of attraction throughout the entire lattice
3.Ionic Bond strength
The strength of ionic bond is
determined by the amount of charge.
A higher charge in a ionic compound will lead to a
higher electrostatic force of attraction
Thus, Mgf2 will have a higher ionic bond due to a higher electrostatic force of attraction between mg2+ and F- ions as compared to thos eof Na+ and Cl-
Physical properties of ionic compounds
2.Good electrical conductivity in aqueous and Molten state
Ionic compounds conduct electricity when in aqueous solution or when melted, but not when they are crystalline solids
In aqueous and molten state, the ions are
mobile
and conduct electricity
In solid state, the ions are held in fixed positions by strong electrostatic forces of attraction in a crystal lattice.
3.High Melting and boiling points
Large amounts of energy
are needed to break the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions
Ionic compounds with a higher charge will have a higher electrostatic force of attraction between ions which thus leads to a higher bp or mp as more heat energy is needed to break these forces of attraction.
1.Soluble in water but not in Organic solvent
Ionic compounds are usually soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents(eg. ethanol, petrol)
At a microscopic level, ionic compounds are usually soluble in water as
water molecules can separate the positive ions from the negative ions, causing them to dissolve
Part 2: Covalent Bonding(Simple Molecular structure)
Structure of small covalent molecules
Simple molecule structure lol
Bonding of small covalent molecules
Atoms in
each molecule
are held by
strong covalent bonds
inside molecules
Between molecules, simple discrete molecules are held together by
weak intermolecular forces
.
Physical properties of small covalent molecules
Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents
Usually insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents like tetrachloromethane
Cannot conduct electricity in any state
There are no mobile electrons or ions present in the structure of simple molecular structures
Low melting and boiling points
Little heat energy is required to overcome the weak intermolecular forces between the molecules
Part 3: Covalent Bonding(Giant Molecular structure)
Graphite(Allotropes of carbon)
Structure: Giant Molecular structure
Bonding: It is made up of layers of carbon atoms
Within each layer:
1 carbon atoms form forms strong covalent bonds with 3 other carbon atoms
The atoms form rings of 6 carbon atoms that are joined together to form 2-dimensional flat layers
Between layers:
The layers of carbon atoms are held together by weak intermolecular forces of attraction
Strong covalent bonds between carbon atoms
Properties of Graphite:
Soft and slippery
Affected by the forces of attraction between layers
Since the layer of atoms are held by weak intermolecular forces of attraction, little amounts of energy is required to overcome them
Thus, the layers can easily slide over each other
Good electrical conductivity
Each carbon atom is bonded to 3 other carbon atom and has 1 extra valence electron that is not used to form form covalent bonds.
These mobile and delocalised electrons can move along the layers to conduct electricity
High melting and boiling points
Affected by the bonds within a layer and not interlayers
Since Graphite has strong covalent intermolecular bonds, large amounts of energy would be required to break them and thus leading to a high mp and bp
Uses: made into pencil lead
Dry lubricants
Silicon(IV) Oxide/Dioxide
Commonly known as sand/Silica or quartz
Chemical formula:SIO2
Structure and bonding in Silicon Dioxide:
In this network, each silicon atom is tetrahedrally bonded to 4 oxygen atoms
Each oxygen atom is bonded to 2 silicon atoms
Properties of Silicon(iv) oxide:
High Melting and boiling points
A large amount of energy is required to break the strong covalent bonds between silicon and oxygen atom in the structure
Diamond(Allotrope of carbon)
Structure: Giant Molecular structure
Bonding: Each carbon atom is held together by
strong covalent bonds
and is tetrahedrally bonded to other carbon atoms , carbon has 4 covalent bonds.
Properties of Diamond:
Cannot Conduct electricity
All the valence electrons
of the carbon atoms are used for bonding which leads to
no mobile electrons
in the structure
High Melting and Boiling points
Diamond is a very
hard substance
A crystal of diamond
contains millions of carbon atoms
joined by
strong covalent
throughout the entire structure
This leads to a
lot of heat energy required to break these covalent bonds
It is insoluble in water
Uses:
Synthetic diamonds produced under high pressures and temperatures are used at the tips of drills and other cutting tools
2.They are used for drilling, grinding and polishing very hard substance
Part 4:Covalent Bonding (Macromolecules)
Polymers are macromolecules
Polymers consist of many covalent molecules joined together into chains of much larger molecules
Structures and bonding in Macromolecules:
Hardness and flexibility
Polymers vary greatly in this aspect so no comment lol
High melting and boiling points
Polymers are mostly solids at room temperature but they do not have a fixed mp or bp
They only soften over a range of temperatures when sufficient heat is provided
Solubility
Most macromolecules are insoluble in water an soluble in organic solvents
Poor conductors of electricity
Most macromolecules are not able to conduct electricity in any states as they do not have mobile ions or electrons
Part 5:Metallic Bonding
Each metal atom loses its valence electrons to become positive metal ions. The valence electrons go into spaces between the ions and no longer belong to the metal atom
Structures and bonding of metals:
Metals are described as lattice of positive ion in a sea of mobile or delocalised electrons
They are held by strong electrostatic forces of attraction between positive ions and electrons
Properties of metals
Good conductors of electricity
Metals conduct electricity due to the presence of the sea of delocalised electrons which allow it to conduct electricity in molten ad solid state
Good conductors of heat
Mobile electrons collide with each other and transfer part of the energy which quickly allows energy to be transferred through the structure
High melting and boiling points
In the metal lattice, each positively charged ion is attracted to the sea of negatively charged electrons and vice versa
A large amount of energy is needed to overcome the strong electrostatic forces of attraction
Good malleability and ductility
Metals are malleable, they can be bent or rolled into sheets
Metals are ductile, they can be pulled into wires
When a force is applied, the atoms in the layers can easily slide over each other and fit into new positions
What are Alloys?
One way to strengthen metals is to make an alloy
An alloy is a mixture of a metal with one or more other elements
An alloy is stronger than a pure metal because atoms of different element have different atomic sizes which dirsupts the regular arrangement of atoms in the metal which causes more force to be needed for atoms to slide past each other ,strengthening the metal
Chapter 5.2:
Elements, Compounds and mixtures
Click to see sublimation diagram
Note: Wet cloth can be used to cool the sides of the inverted funnel
It's not called a 👲👲👲👲(China) dish but a crucible
Link to spreadsheet < Only for L ppl like me>
Tools sheet °C ± ³
