U15
1. THE ADVERB/ ADVERBIALS
1.1. FEATURES
1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS
Syntactic classification
Semantic classification
Morphological classification
Compound Advs
Clause element Adverbial
Peripheral
Derivational Advs
Simple Advs
Advs of degree
–wise
- Adv + Preposition: Here-compounds (herein, hereby), There-compounds (therefore, thereafter), Where-compounds (whereby, whereat,)
- Adv + Interrogative pronoun: somewhat, anyhow, nowhere
- Adv + Noun: indoors, outside
Affixation & Compounding are the most direct way of creating an adverb by morphological processes, apart from those simple adverbs, which are not related to any other word
occur as one-word adverb phrase only, resisting pre- & postmodification
Conjuncts
Interrogative Advs
Advs of time
Advs of place
in, outdoors, abroad, ashore
already, ever, now, still, then, today
how, why, where
almost, enough, even, most, only, quite, rather
again, also, besides, furthermore, however
Derivational suffixes:
slowly, upwards, sideways, clockwise, cowboy style
–fashion/–style
–ward(s)
–ways
–ly
Advs are created from Adjs to indicate manner. Not all words ending in –ly are Advs: lonely, friendly (Adjs)
backwards, homewards, upwards, onwards, forwards
clockwise (manner Adv), healthwise (Adv in peripheral dependent function)
schoolboy-fashion, cowboy style (indicate new trends)
sideways (direction)
interestingly
Changes in spelling & pronunciation
Spelling
Phonological
–able/–ible
/k/ in final position becomes silent when suffix is added: clock-wise
–y
–e
brave-bravely, extreme-extremely (Some retain it)
true-truly, whole-wholly (Others drop it)
drop the final –e and add –y:
capable-capably, sensible-sensibly
it is changed to –i: happy-happily; easy- easily
Vowel + single Consonant
ending in
double the final consonant: final-finally; beautiful-beautifully
/l/ in final position pronounced as dark "l" turns into clear "l" when suffix is added: final-finally, beautiful-beautifully
Conjuncts
Integrated
Disjuncts
Express the speaker’s assessment of the relation btw two linguistic units (connecting advs). They connect ideas in or between sentences. They are also outside the clause structure and can appear in initial position (connective function) e.g. however, because, though. Semantically, they may express:
Adjuncts
Slowly they walked back home;
He spoke to me about it friendly
Frankly, I’m tired;
They are probably at home.
She has bought a big house, so she must have a lot of money.
He isn't happy. However, he gets on with life
Function as (optional) constituents/elements of a clause/sentence (i.e. She dances beautifully) expressing/answering to the question ‘How/Where/When…?’ (can be elicited/obtained by question forms) by adding extra information to the action/process by describing the place, time & other nuances. Only adjuncts resemble closely other sentence elements like Subj, Vb, Obj & Compl.
Subjuncts
Express the speaker's point of view /evaluation of what is being said. They function as ‘comment’ words on the accompanying clause (i.e. frankly, unfortunately). Removing them leaves a well-formed sentence/clause but we lose the speaker's viewpoint. They frequently come in the initial position (preceding a comma) before the clause to which they refer
within the structure of the clause (Final position is usual)
We haven’t yet finished;
Would you kindly wait for me?;
She just stopped talking;
She's certainly intelligent;
She scarcely knows me
Clarification/explaining
Indicating result
Summary
Comparison
Listing
(in the first place, secondly, then, finally)
(therefore, in conclusion, to sum up, in brief),
(for example, that is, specifically, in particular),
(as a result, in consequence)
(similarly, likewise, alternatively)
Opposition/contrast
(on the contrary, on the other hand, however, nevertheless)
Indicating time
(later, now, meanwhile, eventually)
Manner
Means
Time
Instrument, etc
Place
(at the station)
(yesterday morning)
(lovingly, with patience, in a strange manner)
(by bike, by means of...)
(with a fork, by using a...)
Form/style
Content/meaning
Personally, I find metal-music too arid
Obviously, nobody expected us to be here today
2. PROCESS ADJUNCTS
2.1. Manner Adjuncts
2.2. Means Adjuncts
2.3. Instrument Adjuncts
- Define in some way the process denoted by the verb.
- Can be elicited by how-questions.
- Expressed by means of Adv, Prep, Adj & Nn phrases.
Criteria
a)
Adverbials must satisfy one or more of these criteria to be an adjunct:
b)
c)
If it cannot appear initially in a negative declarative clause (we can only front an adjunct in a positive one)
If it can be contrasted with another adverbial in alternative interrogation
If it can be contrasted with another adverbial in alternative negation (showing that the adverbial is the focus of the clause negation)
- Slowly they come back home (positive)
- *Slowly they didn´t come back home (negative)
- He writes to his parents because he wants to
- Does he write to his parents because he wants to or does he write to them because he needs money?
- We went to Chicago on Monday
- We didn´t go to Chicago on Monday, but we did go there on Tuesday
It refers to the mode of action/way of performing anything. By far the largest group to be realised by Advs. Can usually be paraphrased/ substituted by ”in a ... manner/way” with an adjective. However, when an Adv form exists, it is usually preferred over a corresponding Prep. P. Almost always placed at the end of the sentence, since they usually receive the information focus, though sometimes placed after the verb. Realized by:
It refers to procedures, techniques & methods by which the action is produced (by means of). Are commonly expressed by PP (by-phrases), normally placed at the end of the sentence. The PP introduced by "by" is the most common way to express Means. It normally occurs with the gerund from "by working hard", but can also occur with nouns "by bus"
It refers to the object (tool, body part, material or force) used to carry out the verbal action. Usually expressed by Prep. phrases (with-phrase) & respond to the question of “How...?”
–ly (Open-class Advs)
Prepositional phrases
She uttered the words with cold deliberation
Noun phrases
Adverbial phrases
They were walking single file through the woods. They dance (in) the Spanish way. (However, we can consider the NP as having an omitted Pp)
He glanced at her very lovingly
(subordinate) Clauses
Introduced by as, like, as if/though, how: I try to cook vegetables as the Chinese do. (“in the Chinese way”). However, they imply comparison, not manner/mode
He writes carelessly (preferred over) He writes in a careless manner
Expression of manner
Expression of means
Expression of instrument
Prepositional phrases
By-phrase: I go to school by car
On-phrase: got to work on the 9.15 train
Noun phrases
I’d like to sent this parcel air mail (However, we can consider the NP as having an omitted Pp)
–ly (Open-class Advs)
I approached the situation philosophically/scientifically
"How did he do it? By working hard"
We sometimes prefer to replace a Phrase of means by a different type of Prep. phrase: "How did he get in? He came in through the window"
Prepositional phrases
–ly (Open-class Advs)
With-phrase: She broke the mirror with a stone
Negative use: She opened the case without the key
She examined it microscopically (with a microscope)
However, it can also be seen as manner (in microscopic detail)
"The victim was injured with a knife"
"Lift that box carefully"
"You have done this job extremely well"
"We did it well in the exam"
Subject Adjunts
They characterize the referent of the subject with respect to the process/state denoted by the verb. They relate to the person of the subject as well as to the process/state
Volition Adjuncts
Formulaic SA
General SA
With great pride, he accepted the award (“He was very proud to accept ...”).
Meaning that the action is intentional on the part of the subject:
Used to make certain utterances conform to conventions & expectations regarding the level of politeness. Their use is idiomatic & conventionalized
deliberately, (un)intentionally, purposely, reluctantly, with intention, on purpose, with reluctance, etc.
"We humbly apologise for any inconvenience"
"You are cordially invited to our wedding"
"I deliberately left the door unlocked so that he could get in"
Position
Final
Process adjuncts are normally situated at the end of the sentence, because they receive the information focus. This is the only possible position if an Adv is obligatory for the verb: I put my laptop on my desk (although adjuncts never are)
Medial
Initial
Medial possition is possible only if the adjunct is a (solitary) Adv, so we could not use the same variation if the adjunct were “in a slow manner”.
Manner adjuncts are placed at initial position when the information focus is in another part of the sentence, which happens less commonly when this function is performed by adverbs
The light was fading rapidly
He sat down to eat without a word
Billy drank his coffee slowly
Billy slowly drank his coffee
With great courtesy she replied to the questions
occur outside the clause structure itself (Initial position, separated by commas)
Many adverbs are derived from adjectives
They share the same syntactic features with Prepositional phrases
Adverbs modify Vs, Adjs & other Advs
Depending on their semantic role, they commonly express manner, degree, time, place...
Other categories also play the same role as Adverbials: "How did you get out that hole?"
- crawling (verb)
- extraordinarily nervous (adjectives)
- rather well (adverbs)
- wishing to see the light again (grammatical structures)
Adverbs function as the head of Adv phrases, with or without modification
Premodifier of Adj/Adv/Vb
He quite forgot about it.
They are quite happy
They are quite happily married
He ran exceptionally fast
= An adverbial pharse which modifies the verb (tells us more about the action)
INTRODUCTION
In order to define “manner, means and instrument”, we must link these notions to the grammatical categories that express them. These terms are intended to add information about “how” a situation has happened, by describing in detail “in which manner”, “by which means” & “with which instruments” an event took place.
Semantic roles of Adverbials
Contingency
Modality
Process
Degree
Time
Respect
Space
Position, Direction & Distance
Position, Duration, Frequency & Relationship
Manner, Means, Instrument & Agent/subject
Cause, Reason, Purpose, Result, Condition, Concession
Emphasis, Restriction & Approximation
Amplification, Measure & Diminution
casually, with deference, carefully, slowly, like John, just as John does
by bus, in Mathematics,
through insight
with a fork, using a dictionary, by means of interrogation
Grammatical functions
PPs are the most common type of non-adverb adverbial (even more common than Advs). They normally tell us when, where, how or why
- They sold it before moving to Canada
- Mary arrived too late
- Her son was born that day
- They walked down the road
- They stayed indoors
- She walked three miles
- They arrived by car
- She broke the glass using her fist
- They spent the money really quickly
An adverbial which modifies the verb phrase in some way & is integrated into the sentence, though not an obligatory part of the clause (can be removed to leave a well-formed sentence, even though we lose some information)
A subjunct is distinguishable from an adjunct in that it has, to a greater or lesser degree, a parenthetic & subordinate role in comparison with other class elements
However, some adverbials can act as adjuncts, disjuncts or subjuncts depending on the context and co-text
An adv may function in the clause itself as adverbial, that is, as an element distinct from Subj, Vb, Obj & Compl. As such, it is usually an optional element and hence peripheral to the structure of the clause.
Compared with other clause elements (S, V, O, and C), the adverbial element has a wide range of semantic roles
here, upwards, near
now, for a long time, often, still
carefully, by bus, with a knife, by John
of cancer, because of, so as to, so, if, although
certainly, only, probably (the truth value/force of a sentence)
increasingly, enough, a little
in relation to
Addition
(also, furthermore, in addition, moreover)
Emphasis
(of course, indeed, certainly)
Use
Using, by using, through the use of, with the help/aid of
Affixation
Compounding
Advs of conjunction
Conjunctive advs
Advs of frequency
often, never, always, sometimes
(not as the head of the Phrase)
Connecting advs/function
Comment words
solitary Adv
Prep phrases
- carefully
- with care
- in a careful manner
- as if he was careful
most often