AQA History A-level - Tsarist and Communist Russia 1855-1964 - Trying to preserve autocracy, 1855-1894 - The autocracy of Alexander II & Alexander III 3️⃣
Alexander II and Reaction
Background
In 1866, following an attempt on his life, Alex adopted repressive policy (despite exceptions)
Short period of constitutional reform in late 1870s
From 1881, reign of his son Alex III, similarly characterised by reaction
Reasons for reaction
1865 - Alex's eldest son/ heir died; Tsar spends more time w/ mistress & less w/ reformist Grand Duke Konstantin & Grand Duchess Elena
Reactionary conservatives emphasised that reforms had gone too far, weakening Church & nobility
4 assassination attempts on Alex between 1866-80 reinforced reaction need
Consequences
Replaced 4 reformist ministers w/ conservatives in 1866
Education
Tolstoy, new Education Minister, wanted tighter control to eradicate Western liberal ideas & criticism of autocracy
Zemstva powers were reduced
Church regained authority over rural schools
Higher gimnazii schools ordered to follow trad. curriculum, & new modern schools couldn't send kids to uni
Liberal courses replaced by trad. courses w/ tightened censorship and control over student activities
More state teacher-training colleges set up, but to increase control, not improve education; Tolstoy frequently vetoed uni appointments
Police, Law, Control
Shuvalov (new Third Section head) strengthened police & increased ethnic/religious persecution
Pahlen (new Justice Minister) ensured that judicial system exampled 'political agitators'
Searches/arrests increased
Political offenders could be prosecuted/exiled under emergency powers
Radicals fleeing Russia could be tracked/recalled to face justice
'Show trials' held aimed at deterring revolution - had opposite effect, & in '78 political crimes were transferred to special secret courts
Pressures in late 1870s
Pressures
Russo-Turkish War 1877-78
Famine 1879-80
Attempted assassinations 1879-80
Pressure from reactionary conservatives
Industrial recession
Alex II tried to reduce unrest by widening democratic consultation
Count Loris-Melikov appointed Minister of Internal Affairs - relaxed restrictions & abolished Third Section, yet such powers were transferred to Okhrana
1880 Loris-Melikov produced the 'Loris-Melikov Constitution', recommending incl. elected reps. in debating state decrees - Alex II accepted report on 13/03/1881, the day of Alex II's death
Alexander III as Tsar
Background
Reigned 1881-94
Strongly influenced by tutor Pobedonostsev, who believed in absolutism/nationalism/anti-Semitism
Believed he could alone choose the right path for country - his subjects were to love and obey, not question
At the start of reign
Publicly hanged conspirators in father's assassination
Issued 'Manifesto of Unshakable Autocracy' in 1881 & Law on Exceptional Measures
Abandoned Loris-Melikov proposals
Accepted reforming ministers resignations, incl. Dmitry Milyutin, heavily relying on conservatives
Local Government
Nobles reinstated to authority
State authoruty increased
1889 - Office of noble 'Land Captain' created
1890 - Zemstvo election arrangements & zemstvo powers altered
1892 - Town councils' election arrangements altered
Responsible for law enforcement/government in countryside & could overturn court judgement
Could over-ride zemstvo elections & disregard their decisions
State-appointed
Peasants' vote reduced
Zemstvo under central government control
Electorate reduced to property owners above certain values
Mayor & town councils become central government's state employees
Policing
Dept. of Policing (incl. Okhrana) led by Plehve between 1881-84, and from 1884 by Durnovo
Number of police increased
New branches of criminal investigations
Spies/'agent provocateurs' hired
Okhrana investigated communists, socialists, TUs; also watched govn./civil servants
Definitions
TUs - Trade Union(ists)
1882 Statute on Police Surveillance gave tremendous police powers over people's lives - any Empire area could be deemed 'area of subversion' & police could search, arrest, detain, question, imprison, exile any (suspected) criminal or those related
Judicial system
Reforms of Alex II partially reversed
Decrees of '85,'87,'89 gave greater power to Ministry of Justice
In '87, property/educational qual. for jurors raised
In '89 volost (peasant) courts under Land Captain jurisdiction in countryside, and judges in towns
Education
Alex II's reforms eroded
1884 - uni appointments became subject to approval of Education Ministry, which were now based no 'religious, moral patriotic orientation', rather than academic grounds
Women uni's closed, separate uni courts abolished, uni life was closely supervised
Low-class kids were restricted to primary education, which was under Church control
Censorship
From 1882 censorship powers were increased & censors became more active
Extent & impact of counter-reform
Changes greatly increased central govn. control over local matters & restored some nobility influence; some reforms remained in place and had positive change
Examples:
May 1881 - redemption fees were reduced & central province arrears were cancelled
May 1885 - poll tax abolished; inheritance tax introduced, shifting taxation burden away from lower classes
Allowed right of appeal to higher courts
Peasants' Land Bank established in '83
Reformist factory legislation introduced
Civil Society & Rule of Law - Key concepts of a democratic society; all members of society enjoy the protection of laws, which are applied equally and fairly, while organisations exist in which people of country can express their views and influence decisions.
Reaction - Implies actions and policies that are backward looking in an attempt to restore the past; those who support reaction known as reactionaries
Key Profiles
Yekaterina Mikhailovna Dolgorukova (1847-1922)
Sent to Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens in St Petersburg, following death of her father &, at 16, was spotted by Alexander on an official visit in 1864
Became a lady-in-waiting to Alex II’s ill wife; wrote at least daily by 1866 despite court disapproval
Bore him 4 children and married to Alex 40 days after his first wife died; children were barred from succession
Count Dmitry Andreyevich Tolstoy (1823-‘89)
Noble & later Over-Procurator of Holy Synod in ‘65-‘80
Joined State Council in ‘66; Minister of Education ‘66-‘80; Minister of Internal Affairs & Chief of Gendarmerie ‘82-‘89
Elected President of St Petersburg Academy of Sciences in ‘82
Wrote number of Russian history books
Show trial - Trial that took place in front of general public, usually for ‘propaganda’ purposes
Closer Look
Show trials: 'Trial of 50' (1877) & 'Trial of 193' (1877-78) accused people of revolutionary activities; in 'Trial of 193' jury acquitted 153/193 defendants & gave light sentences to the rest; Vera Zasulich shot the St Petersburg governor, Dmitri Trepov, & wasn't guilty at her trial
Constitution - set of rules which a country is governed, e.g regarding where power lies & which bodies should make laws and how
13/03/1881 Alex II was travelling to Winter Palace in St Petersburg in closed carriage; Narodnaya Volya had concealed bombs along route, which missed but Tsar was hit by another terrorist
Konstantin Pobedonostsev (1827-1907)
Tutor for Alexander from 1865
Nickname 'Black Tsar'
Probably wrote Manifesto of Unshakable Authority
Over-Procurator of Holy Synod from 1880, spoke for absolutism, nationalism, anti-Semitism
Tutored Nicholas II
Alexander II (1845-'94)
Watched father died and was afraid of revolutionary activity, refusing to live in Winter Palace
1.9 tall and immensely strong
Married Danish princess, Dagmar (Maria Feodorovna) & had 6 kids
Died of kidney ailment, possibly from drinking in '94
The Empress Maria Feodorovna (1847-1928)
Born Princess Dagmar of Denmark
Adopted Orthodox religion and new name in '65
Imposing/elegent empress, domineering mother
Tried oppose marriage of eldest son Nicholas and Alix (minor German princess) as she feared her influence over him would lessen
Mikhail Katkov (1818-87)
Influential right-wing journalist, edited Moscow News from '63 'til death
Considerable power of literate public
Favoured by Alex III for Cons. political views, support of Russian interests, and opposition to Polish nationalism
Particularism - concern for the immediate locality and an area of personal interest
Vyacheslav Konstantinovich von Plehve (1846-1904)
Director of Secret Police in Ministry of Internal Affaird in 1881-'84
Vice-Minister for Internal Affairs 1884-'99
State Secretary for Finland 1899-1902
Minister for Internal Affairs 1902-1904
Committed to upholding autocratic principles; suppressed revolutionary, liberal movements
Subjected minorities to forced Russification
Secretely organsied Jewish pogroms
Said to have encouraged war against Japan in 1904 to forestall revolution at home
Backed police-controlled labour unions
Assassinated in 1904 by member of Socialist Revolutionary Party
Okhrana: Had offices in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Warsaw; responsible for 'security and investigation'; intercepted/read mail, checked on activities in factories/universities/army/State, detaining suspects and torturing them; Communists/socialists/TUs were particularly subjected, but also civil servants and govn.
Closed court session: trial held in secret; no press/observers allowed