AQA History A-level - Tsarist and Communist Russia 1855-1964 - Trying to preserve autocracy, 1855-1894 - Alexander II, the 'Tsar Reformer' 2️⃣

Definitions

Emancipation - freeing from bondage

Enlightened despotism - system of government in which an all-powerful ruler granted domestic reforms in order to benefit his people

The Emancipation of the Serfs

Background

Tsar Alexander II has been named the 'Tsar Liberator' due to his decision to emancipate the serfs

Motives

People influences

His tutor, Zhukovsky

His earlier travels around the Empire

A circle of nobles known as the Party of St Petersburg Progress, who came into prominence at his court

His brother, Grand Duke Konstantin

His aunt, Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna

'Enlightened' bureaucrats like the Milyutin brothers and Intelligentsia members

Economic

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Social

Serfdom was seen as morally wrong

Peasant uprisings had increased in number since 1840s

Military

Defeat in the Crimean War & consequent humiliation

Dmitry Milyutin argued only a free population would provide the labour needed to improve the army

Early Reforms

Released political prisoners

He was determined to maintain his autocracy & uphold 'God-given' duties, but, due to pressure for reform, he went through with them #

Relaxed censorship controls

Lessened foreign travel restrictions and university entrance

Cancelled tax debts

Restored some rights of Poland and Catholic Church

The Emancipation Edict,1861

Applied immediately to privately owned serfs and state serfs from '66

Serfs were granted freedom and land allotments

Landlords were compensated by the government - they kept some land but open fields were given to the peasant commune (mir)

Freed Serfs had to pay 'redemption payments' over 49 yrs for their land; serfs had to remain in the mir until it was paid, which would distribute allotments, control farming, collect/pay peasants taxes

Volosts were established to supervise mirs, and from '63 ran their own courts

Theoretically, there was a 2 yr period of 'temporary obligation' before freedom; practically, 15% of peasants were under 'temporary obligation' until '81, when redemption was compulsory

Results

Positive

Peasants no longer subject to masters' whim & had free status

Some peasants (prosperous kulaks) did well out of land allocations, buying up extra land & exporting surplus grain

Some sold their land, obtained a passport to leave the mir, and found work in the city to increase their living standards

Some landowners used compensation offered to get out of debt

Enterprising landlords profited through investment in industrial enterprises

Negative

Fair land allocations were a rarity

As mir distributions had to be equal, the greater the population, the smaller the land the peasants had

Allotments were tiny - difficult to adopt new farming methods

Mirs were highly traditional - subsistence farming/technical backwardness persisted (only 50% of peasantry in '78 were capable of surplus production)

Loss of former benefits, travel restrictions, redemption payments made rural life difficult

Kulak resentment and landholding/redemption payments disputes led to further violence, such as riots/protests in Moscow, St Petersburg, Kazan

Other Domestic Reforms

Background

Changes to the rights/positions of peasants/landowners had wide implications for society/government

Local Government Reforms (1864-70)

Progress

Limitations

Pre-Reform

Zemstva chosen through 'electoral colleges'; separate colleges were used for nobles, townspeople, Church & peasants,allowing a degree of popular representation

Power was strictly limited

Composed of men who knew the locality and its needs

Given power to improve public services, develop industrial projects, administer poor relief; 1870 - elected town councils (dumas) set up in the towns

No control over taxes

Voting procedure favoured nobility

Provincial governors continue to appoint officials, take responsibility for law & order, could overturn zemstvo decisions

Councils never truly 'people's assemblies' - attracted doctors, lawyers, teachers, scientists who used meetings to debate political issues

Judiciary Reforms (1864)

Pre-Reform

Emancipation required legal/administrative changes to local justice - previously judge examined written evidence prepared by owner/police

No jury system, no lawyers, no witness examinations

Accused was guilty until proven innocent, with judge's decision final

Elected local councils (zemstva) replaced the rights/obligations of serf-owning gentry

Limitations

Progress

News system was modelled on the West

Single system of courts established before the law - accused was presumed innocent 'til proven guilty, and could employ a lawyer

Criminal cases held before barristers & jury, selected from property owners, w/ judges appointed by Tsar & given improved training/pay

Local Justices of the Peace (JPs) elected tri-anually by zemstva, & were independent from political controls

Publical courts, & proceedings could be reported; National trials recorded in a government newspaper, the Russian Courier

Articulate lawyers could criticise regime

New juries acquitted some guilty out of sympathy; new decree had to be issued permitting political crimes to be tried by special procedures

Were limitations and exclusions, like the ecclesiastical /military courts

Education Reforms (1863-64)

Pre-Reform

Limitations

Progress

Emancipation increased need for basic literacy/numeracy among peasants

Golovnin (Minister of Education 1862-67) helmed the reforms

New independence of unis increased number of radical thinkers; after '66, government control was reasserted

Number of school/uni attendees increased

Schools declared open to both genders of all classes (from 1870 women could attend secondary school for non-vocational education)

Primary/Secondary education was extended; modern schools created at secondary level for those who didn't want a classical gimnaziya educations - both allowed progression to uni

School responsibility shifted from Church to zemstva

Universities could self-govern and appoint own staff

Military Reforms (1874-75)

Pre-Reform

Limitations

Progress

Military Colleges set up to provide better training to non-noble officer corps

Dmitry Milyutin's reorganisation of begun an improved efficiency/reduced cost

Richer people found substitutes to serve for them

Compulsory conscription for all classes from 21, but reduction of length of service from 25 to 15yrs in active service, & 10yrs in reserves

Creation of new command structure

Introduction of modern weaponry

Better provisioning, medical care, education were provided; literacy rates increased in '70s-90s

Military colony system abandoned

Less severe punishments

Officer class remained largely aristocratic

Supply and leadership problems persisted

Other Reforms

Progress

Limitations

Some economic liberalisation

Attempts to eliminate corruption in lower levels of corruption

Reform of condition of Jews/ethnic minorities initially

Between 1858-70 press censorship was relaxed; book publication grew by >10x from '55 to '64

Government control tightened in 1870s after critical writing increased

Church reform stopped in reactionary years since 1870s

After 1863 Polish rebellion, lenient treatment of Poles/Jews was reversed

Economic liberalisation remained, but mostly at peasants' expense

Historian Terence Emmons' refers to emancipation as a piece of state-directed manipulation of society which aimed to strengthen social/political stability, rather than a product of liberal thinking from a Tsar concerned w/ subject's welfare

Key Profiles

Nikolai Alexander Milyutin (1818-72)

Influential voice in Ministry of Internal Affairs

Favoured reform in Slavophile tradition

1859-61: Largely responsible for drafting terms of Emancipation Edict

Supported zemstva establishment

Dmitry Alekseyevich Miilutin (1816-1912)

Trained in military academy; had a reputation as a military scholar

Analysed reasons behind Russia's defeat in Crimean War; was an obvious choice for Alex II's Minister of War from 1861-81

Made a count in recognition of his services for military reforms

Views shared with intelligentsia who believed serfdom was wrong and was holding Russia back economically, weakening her 'Great Power' status

He started by releasing political prisoners/ pardoning Decemberists

Redemption payment - serfs were required to pay money in exchange for their freedom

Kulak - prosperous landed peasant

Ecclesiastical and military courts - an ecclesiastical court was a Church court where punishments were in the hands of priests; in military courts, army officers awarded the sentences

Party of St. Petersburg - loose title given to liberal nobles/officials who frequented salons of Tsar's aunt, or gathered around his aunt

Closer Look

1840-1844,<30 outbreaks of disorder per annum, but this doubled over 30yrs, partly due to: pushing peasants to pay higher rent, protests against conscription

Volost was a peasant community of villages & hamlets; admin areas were called mirs, run by representatives; had own court from 1863 managed under nobles and 'peace officer'

Unrest continued under Edict as disputed erupted over land-holding and redemption payments; 647 incidents in 4 months w/ peasant riot in Bezdna (70 dead); noble bankruptcies continued

War against Turkey (1877-78) - in attempt to recover Crimean War losses, Russians went to war against Turkey, concluding it w/ Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 & then Treaty of Berlin which split up new Bulgaria

Number of primary schools rose from 8000 to 23,000 from '56 to '80, w/ pupils raising from 400,000 to 1m; uni students increased from 3600 to 10000 in 1870s