AQA History A-level - Tsarist and Communist Russia 1855-1964 - Trying to preserve autocracy, 1855-1894 - Alexander II, the 'Tsar Reformer' 2️⃣
Definitions
Emancipation - freeing from bondage
Enlightened despotism - system of government in which an all-powerful ruler granted domestic reforms in order to benefit his people
The Emancipation of the Serfs
Background
Tsar Alexander II has been named the 'Tsar Liberator' due to his decision to emancipate the serfs
Motives
People influences
His tutor, Zhukovsky
His earlier travels around the Empire
A circle of nobles known as the Party of St Petersburg Progress, who came into prominence at his court
His brother, Grand Duke Konstantin
His aunt, Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna
'Enlightened' bureaucrats like the Milyutin brothers and Intelligentsia members
Economic
Social
Serfdom was seen as morally wrong
Peasant uprisings had increased in number since 1840s
Military
Defeat in the Crimean War & consequent humiliation
Dmitry Milyutin argued only a free population would provide the labour needed to improve the army
Early Reforms
Released political prisoners
He was determined to maintain his autocracy & uphold 'God-given' duties, but, due to pressure for reform, he went through with them #
Relaxed censorship controls
Lessened foreign travel restrictions and university entrance
Cancelled tax debts
Restored some rights of Poland and Catholic Church
The Emancipation Edict,1861
Applied immediately to privately owned serfs and state serfs from '66
Serfs were granted freedom and land allotments
Landlords were compensated by the government - they kept some land but open fields were given to the peasant commune (mir)
Freed Serfs had to pay 'redemption payments' over 49 yrs for their land; serfs had to remain in the mir until it was paid, which would distribute allotments, control farming, collect/pay peasants taxes
Volosts were established to supervise mirs, and from '63 ran their own courts
Theoretically, there was a 2 yr period of 'temporary obligation' before freedom; practically, 15% of peasants were under 'temporary obligation' until '81, when redemption was compulsory
Results
Positive
Peasants no longer subject to masters' whim & had free status
Some peasants (prosperous kulaks) did well out of land allocations, buying up extra land & exporting surplus grain
Some sold their land, obtained a passport to leave the mir, and found work in the city to increase their living standards
Some landowners used compensation offered to get out of debt
Enterprising landlords profited through investment in industrial enterprises
Negative
Fair land allocations were a rarity
As mir distributions had to be equal, the greater the population, the smaller the land the peasants had
Allotments were tiny - difficult to adopt new farming methods
Mirs were highly traditional - subsistence farming/technical backwardness persisted (only 50% of peasantry in '78 were capable of surplus production)
Loss of former benefits, travel restrictions, redemption payments made rural life difficult
Kulak resentment and landholding/redemption payments disputes led to further violence, such as riots/protests in Moscow, St Petersburg, Kazan
Other Domestic Reforms
Background
Changes to the rights/positions of peasants/landowners had wide implications for society/government
Local Government Reforms (1864-70)
Progress
Limitations
Pre-Reform
Zemstva chosen through 'electoral colleges'; separate colleges were used for nobles, townspeople, Church & peasants,allowing a degree of popular representation
Power was strictly limited
Composed of men who knew the locality and its needs
Given power to improve public services, develop industrial projects, administer poor relief; 1870 - elected town councils (dumas) set up in the towns
No control over taxes
Voting procedure favoured nobility
Provincial governors continue to appoint officials, take responsibility for law & order, could overturn zemstvo decisions
Councils never truly 'people's assemblies' - attracted doctors, lawyers, teachers, scientists who used meetings to debate political issues
Judiciary Reforms (1864)
Pre-Reform
Emancipation required legal/administrative changes to local justice - previously judge examined written evidence prepared by owner/police
No jury system, no lawyers, no witness examinations
Accused was guilty until proven innocent, with judge's decision final
Elected local councils (zemstva) replaced the rights/obligations of serf-owning gentry
Limitations
Progress
News system was modelled on the West
Single system of courts established before the law - accused was presumed innocent 'til proven guilty, and could employ a lawyer
Criminal cases held before barristers & jury, selected from property owners, w/ judges appointed by Tsar & given improved training/pay
Local Justices of the Peace (JPs) elected tri-anually by zemstva, & were independent from political controls
Publical courts, & proceedings could be reported; National trials recorded in a government newspaper, the Russian Courier
Articulate lawyers could criticise regime
New juries acquitted some guilty out of sympathy; new decree had to be issued permitting political crimes to be tried by special procedures
Were limitations and exclusions, like the ecclesiastical /military courts
Education Reforms (1863-64)
Pre-Reform
Limitations
Progress
Emancipation increased need for basic literacy/numeracy among peasants
Golovnin (Minister of Education 1862-67) helmed the reforms
New independence of unis increased number of radical thinkers; after '66, government control was reasserted
Number of school/uni attendees increased
Schools declared open to both genders of all classes (from 1870 women could attend secondary school for non-vocational education)
Primary/Secondary education was extended; modern schools created at secondary level for those who didn't want a classical gimnaziya educations - both allowed progression to uni
School responsibility shifted from Church to zemstva
Universities could self-govern and appoint own staff
Military Reforms (1874-75)
Pre-Reform
Limitations
Progress
Military Colleges set up to provide better training to non-noble officer corps
Dmitry Milyutin's reorganisation of begun an improved efficiency/reduced cost
Richer people found substitutes to serve for them
Compulsory conscription for all classes from 21, but reduction of length of service from 25 to 15yrs in active service, & 10yrs in reserves
Creation of new command structure
Introduction of modern weaponry
Better provisioning, medical care, education were provided; literacy rates increased in '70s-90s
Military colony system abandoned
Less severe punishments
Officer class remained largely aristocratic
Supply and leadership problems persisted
Other Reforms
Progress
Limitations
Some economic liberalisation
Attempts to eliminate corruption in lower levels of corruption
Reform of condition of Jews/ethnic minorities initially
Between 1858-70 press censorship was relaxed; book publication grew by >10x from '55 to '64
Government control tightened in 1870s after critical writing increased
Church reform stopped in reactionary years since 1870s
After 1863 Polish rebellion, lenient treatment of Poles/Jews was reversed
Economic liberalisation remained, but mostly at peasants' expense
Historian Terence Emmons' refers to emancipation as a piece of state-directed manipulation of society which aimed to strengthen social/political stability, rather than a product of liberal thinking from a Tsar concerned w/ subject's welfare
Key Profiles
Nikolai Alexander Milyutin (1818-72)
Influential voice in Ministry of Internal Affairs
Favoured reform in Slavophile tradition
1859-61: Largely responsible for drafting terms of Emancipation Edict
Supported zemstva establishment
Dmitry Alekseyevich Miilutin (1816-1912)
Trained in military academy; had a reputation as a military scholar
Analysed reasons behind Russia's defeat in Crimean War; was an obvious choice for Alex II's Minister of War from 1861-81
Made a count in recognition of his services for military reforms
Views shared with intelligentsia who believed serfdom was wrong and was holding Russia back economically, weakening her 'Great Power' status
He started by releasing political prisoners/ pardoning Decemberists
Redemption payment - serfs were required to pay money in exchange for their freedom
Kulak - prosperous landed peasant
Ecclesiastical and military courts - an ecclesiastical court was a Church court where punishments were in the hands of priests; in military courts, army officers awarded the sentences
Party of St. Petersburg - loose title given to liberal nobles/officials who frequented salons of Tsar's aunt, or gathered around his aunt
Closer Look
1840-1844,<30 outbreaks of disorder per annum, but this doubled over 30yrs, partly due to: pushing peasants to pay higher rent, protests against conscription
Volost was a peasant community of villages & hamlets; admin areas were called mirs, run by representatives; had own court from 1863 managed under nobles and 'peace officer'
Unrest continued under Edict as disputed erupted over land-holding and redemption payments; 647 incidents in 4 months w/ peasant riot in Bezdna (70 dead); noble bankruptcies continued
War against Turkey (1877-78) - in attempt to recover Crimean War losses, Russians went to war against Turkey, concluding it w/ Treaty of San Stefano in 1878 & then Treaty of Berlin which split up new Bulgaria
Number of primary schools rose from 8000 to 23,000 from '56 to '80, w/ pupils raising from 400,000 to 1m; uni students increased from 3600 to 10000 in 1870s