Aspects of cohesion

Types of text reference

Substitution and elipsis

Using substitution and elipsis

Substitution

substitution of a noun or noun phrase

Substitution of a verb or verb phrase with do

Substitution of a verb or verb phrase with do so/ it/ that

Substitution of a clause

  • Substitution - replacing one word or phrase with another.
  • Ellipsis - leave out words or phrases altogether.
    ✅ used to avoid the unnecessary repetition of words or phrases.
    ✅ leave out or replace nouns, verbs, entire clauses.
    ✅ verbs and verb phrases are often replaced by a form of the auxiliaty do
  • Labour voted for the proposals and the Liberals voted for the proposals too.
    Labour voted for the proposals and the Liberals did too.
  • Make left at about the same time as Jane (left)
  • The best skiing is found not at big resorts but it is found at small resorts.)
  • The best skiing is found not at big resorts but at small ones.
  • Hadn't we better look into the interest rates first? It's Ok. I've already done it.

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  • we usualy replace or omit words or phrases which have previously been mentioned.
  • reffering back in a text to a previously mentioned item is known as 'anaphoric reference'
  • Substitution to refer to the items mentioned further back than in the same sentence, as long as there are no ambiguity.
    ⚠ We avoid substitution and ellisis if there is a possible ambiguilty (e.g 2 plural nouns in one sentence)
  • use a substantive word to refer to smth later in the sentence. it creates an atmosphere of suspense and it's often used in dramatic or literary language. Known as 'cataphoric reference'
  • The managers in our company have often adopted produvtion processes which give rise to unsatisfying jobs because it is cheaper for them to do so.
    The museum's lifelike new dinosaur will surely enhance its status amongst children.
  • She had a vast collection of antique clocks, which she kept ina small room devoted to her hobby. While most of them dated from the Victorian era, she had a few smaller ones which dates back to the early 19th centry.
  • She had a vast collection on anticue clocks and an equally large collection of Victorian dolls. (She had quite a few from the Victorian era but also some smaller ones from the early 19th centry.
  • Its eyes glinting like steel and its mouth salivating, the predator prepared to strike.

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  • substitues for nouns or noun phrases are personal pronouns (subject, object, possessive or reflexive)
  • adj or demonstratives + one, ones - to refer to a singular/plural countable nouns
  • we don't use one for uncuntable nouns; instead we omit the noun
  • we can use demonstrative pronouns without one/ones
  • replace a noun or noun phrase with a quantifier ( some, all, each, none, either, neither, both, other, a few, enough)
  • John came into the room. He was wearing a light blue silk suit.
    Ben and Alice were refreshingly independent of each other. While Ben's politics were far to the left, Alice made it known that hers werecentre right.
  • I'd like a sweet sherry please and John would like a dry one.
    Davis appeared in numerous major films but practically no great ones.
    Which colour would you prefer for the bathroom suite, this one or that one?
    We don't use one for the bathroom suite, this one or that one?
  • I really like sweet sherry but my husband prefers dry (sherry).
  • Which colour would you prefer for the bathroom suite, this one or that?
    It is possible to respect both your own opinions and thise of other people.
  • The boys went out night after night and some did not return.
    The doctor suggested I should try aspirin or ibuprofen, but neither worked.

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  • form of do
    ✏ to avoid repeating a present or past simple verb
    ✏ in comparison clauses
    ✏ to avoid repeating the main verb in coordinate clauses if the action is the same in both.
    ✅ we can also use inverted pattern: so/neither + do/does/ did + S
    ✏ so, not neither, neither/nor - to agree with the speaker in short answers.
    ✏ object pronoun (usually with too, neither, nor) instead of do. in informal sepeech,
  • At the time, they lived very near to where I did.
  • She doesn't know any more than I do.
    He doesn't help as much as she does.
  • Mary sent him a text message and I did too.
    Dad never learnt a foreign language and Mum didn't either.
  • She really enjoyed the thrill of the open road, and so did her husband.
    Dad never learnt to speak any other languages, and neither did Mum.
  • I saw Jane yesterday. Oh, yes, so did I.
    I didn't have enough money. Neither/Nor did I. I didn't either'.
  • I saw Jane yesterday. Me too!
    Julian was at the meeting about the new road scheme yesterday. Him too?
    I didn't want to go. Me neiher. Nor me.

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  • do so/it/that - to replace a verb phrase which describes a single, specific action.
    ✅ do so - more formal than do it/ that in this case.
  • do it/that - when the subject of the verb changes.
  • that(stessed) - to emphasise an action. (we stress that)
  • do so - to refer to an activity rather than a single, specific action.
  • do - to replace verbs refer to events outside our control. We don't use do so/it/that to replace verbs refer to events outside our control, believe, lose, forget.
  • Margaret had been trying to pluck up the courage to confront her son about the money, and she was just about to do so/it when the dorrbell rang.
  • I was unable to contact the barrister about the court appearance. Can the clerk do it/that tomorrow?
  • Why don't you just lie to him? Oh, I couldn't do that!
  • Anyone wishing to interrupt with questions should feel free to do so.
    When you want to get fit, you should only do so within a planned exercise programme.
  • Michael still believes fiercely that no one is evil - just as he did when he wasa younger.
    I always said you'd lose that mobile phone and now you have done!
    She told me not to forget the cake in the oven, but I did.

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  • expect/ think /imagine /believe + so - to express an opinion without repeating the preceding statement, question or answer.
    • to make a negative responce we:
      make the verb negative + so - to express a neative response
      these verbs + not - possible but archaic(used in formal context),
      hope + not - exaption
    • ❌ don't use so or not after expressions of certainty or doubt.
      ✅ use it
    • ❌ don't use that-clause after so
      ✅ use it, this, that - to refer back to a previous clause.
    • if, whether clause are substituted for if so (affirmative) if not
    • so at the beginning of a short answer when we agree to a statement with a certain amount of surprise.
      ⚠ Be careful not to cinfuse this use with So did/ did so
  • Do you think WAP phones will ever catch on? (l think so) I expect so.
    I wonder if privatising the post office will make the postal service more efficient.
    I hope so! I don't believe so, myself.
  • Are you coming to the party tomorrow? I don't think so.
    Was the document countersigned by two witnesses? I believe not.
    It's going to rain. I hope not.
  • Do you think it'll rain? I'm certain of it.
    Do you think interest rates will go down this month? I doubt it.
  • Do you know if John is coming this evening?
    I think so. I think (that) he is.
  • I forgot his birthday again and he was really upset about it. ( = forgetting his birthday). Many of the latest models have been recalled because of a fault in the steering. This has caused embarrassment to the manufacturers.
    Many of the latest models have been recalled because of a fault in the steering. This has caused embarrassment to the manufacturers.
  • Can you check whether that contract has arrived and, if so, send it out to Mr Andrews?
    He asked the guests if they wanted an evening meal, and if not, whether he could bring them sandwiches in their rooms.
  • They've put a new statue in front of the palace. So they have.

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Ellipsis

Omitting a noun/pronoun

  • often omit:
    ✅ nouns or pronouns in the second of two coordinate clauses
    ✅ end when the subject is the same (casual spoken English)
    ⚠ don't leave out pronouns in subordinate clause.
    ✅ subject pronouns at the beginning of short sentences in casual English.

Omitting a verb

  • can omit a verb to avoid repeating it
    ⚠ don't omit the auxiliary or modal
  • form - change
    ❤ present/past simple verb - omit main verb in and clauses
    ❤ auxiliary + main verb - omit main verb
    ❤ modal + main verb - omit main verb
    ❤ compound verb forms - omit second/thind auxiliary or only the main verb
    ✅ in coordinate clauses when the second clause is very similar in pattern to the first, we leave out the auxiliary as well.
    ✅ we can introduce a new modal in order to add interpretation (in this case deduction) but still not repeat the main verb.
    ✅ in comparison clauses we can omit: verbs and auxiliary and modal verbs as well.
    ✅ if the comparison clause begins with a pronoun and we omit the verb phrase completely, we use an object pronoun rather than a subject pronoun.

Omitting infinitives or wh-clauses

  • omit:
    ❤ an infinitive phrase when the meaning is clear.
    ❤ to - after most verbs which are followed by to + infinitive (ask, forget, promise, want, would like in if or wh-clauses.)
    ❤ the clause and use the question word only (in questions and embedded question)
  • Lucy went up to the bar and (she) asked for a coffee.
    We were totaly exhausted but (we) felt satisfied with our day's work.
  • Sandy was feeling really bored. (and he) didn't know what to do with all the extra time he'd now got.
  • All night she was so tired that she fell asleep as soon as she got into bed.
  • (I) Must go now. It's getting late.
    Is your brother coming with us? (I) Hope not!

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  • She attracts the attention of the local yobbos and he (attracts) the suspicions of the villagers.
  • I like John and he (likes) me.
  • He was looking for a job, or at least, he said he was (looking for one).
    Have you seen my glasses? Yes, I have (seen them). They're here.
  • I can speak Spanish and Mary can (speak Spanish) too.
  • Couldn't anybody have been warned about the problem?
  • Yes, the captain could (have been warned) could have (been warned)/ could have been (warned)
    ...
  • Since the divorce I've lived in London and my husband (has lived) in Cambridge.
  • Has Mary arived yet? She must have (arrived). There's her coat.
  • You look older than my mother (does).
    House prices have dropped much less than share prices (have done)/ have (done).
    Most European teams can now play more interesting football than the British teams (can play)/ can (play).
    I've been working here longer than you (have been doing)/ have (been doing)/ have been (doing).
  • You look older than she does. - You look older than her.

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  • Geri had intended to complete the degree after the birth of her child, but she soon realised she wouldn't be able to (complete it)
    He didn't win the competition even though he had expected to (win in)
  • You don't have to take the children to the cinema, you know. But I promised (to).
    Shall we go to the cinema tonight? Yes, if you want (to)
  • Dr Angelo said he was going on a call this afternoon.
    Did he say where (he was going)? No, he didn't say where.

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