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The Life-span Perspective - Coggle Diagram
The Life-span Perspective
Beginnings
Science of Development
Multidisciplinary
Genetics and Epigenetics
Three Domains
Psychosocial
Erik Erickson
Biosocial
Cognitive
Jean Piaget
Multicontextual
Different influences
Physical Contexts
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory
Chronosystem
Microsystem
Exosystem
Macrosystem
Mesosystem
History/Social Class
Cohort
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
Family Contexts
Community Contexts
Multicultural
Culture
Social Construction
Difference-equals-defecit-error
Plastic
Differential succeptibility
Dynamic-Systems-Approach
Human Traits can be molded
People maintain a certain durability and identity
Most evident when considering actual lived experience
Multidirectional
Sensitive Period
Changes in every direction
Can lose ability while gaining another
Changes vary
Discontinuity or Continuity
Critical Period
Prenatal Development
Embryonic Period
Lats from week 3 to week 8
Primitive Streak
Becomes neural tube then
becomes Central Nervous System
Embryo
Growth in cephalocaudal pattern
Growth in proximodistal pattern
Germinal Period
Lasts 2 weeks
Implantation
Conception
Zygote
Differentiation
Fetal Period
37-39 weeks- full term
Longer time in womb
increases chance of survival
Lasts from 9 weeks to birth
22 weeks-age of viability
Fetus
Quickening- first palpable movements
(around 4 months)
Sex of fetus is determined (3rd month) XY-Male XX-Female
Final 3 months
Lungs expand and contract, breathing muscles are exercised, fetus swallows and spits amniotic fluid
Valves of heart go through final maturation
Testicles of males descend
Brain pathways become stronger
Birth
Birthing positions and places vary
Fetal brain signals the release of hormones (oxytocin) to prepare fetus for delivery and starts labor
“Active labor”- beginning with regular contractions and ending when fetal head passed through cervix
Labor Stages:1- cervix dialatesto allow passage of baby’s head 2-baby’s head moves through opening of vagina “crowns” and emerges completely 3- expulsion of placenta
Newborn
Umbilical cord is cut
Mucus in baby’s throat is removed
Baby is weighed, measured, and examined
Given to mom for skin to skin and first breast fed meal (colostrum)
Assessment (Apgar)
Scored at 1 minute after birth and again at 5 minutes
Score below 5 is an emergency
Virginia Apgar
rating scale of 5 vital signs-color, heart rate, cry,
muscle tone, and breathing
Appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, respiration
The First 2 Years
Biosocial Development
Growth is often expressed in percentiles
Indicates comparisons
Through childhood, regular and ample sleep correlates with normal brain maturation, learning, emotional regulation, academic success, and psychological adjustment
During infancy growth is rapid
Sleep deprivation can cause poor health and vice versa
Sleep patterns begin in the first year
Newborns sleep 15-17 hours per day
About 1/2 newborn sleep is REM
3-4 months quiet sleep or slow-wave sleep increases
Sleep varies due to biology and caregivers
Co-sleeping/ bed sharing
Head sparing- biological mechanism that protects the brain when malnutrition disrupts body growth
Newborn brain has less dentrutes, axons, synapses, and much less myelin
Prenatal and postnatal brain growth
There are about 100 trillion synapses present at age 2
Early dendrite growth- transient exuberance
Followed by pruning- the process by which unused connections in the brain atrophy and die
Normative experience needed
Experience-expectant
Experience-dependent
Lack of stimulation stunts the brain
Playing fosters growth
Over abundance of cortisol early I life makes brain react oddly to stress lifelong
Self-righting-inborn drive to remedy a developmental defecit
All senses function at birth
Hearing develops last trimester of pregnancy
Vision is immature at birth
Improves rapidly
Smell and taste rapidly adapt to social context
Sense of touch is acute in infants
Motor skills
Gross motor skills
Cephalocaudal and proximodistal
Sitting
Crawling
Standing
Running
Jumping
Fine motor skills
Grasping
Reaching
Stacking blocks
Drawing
Cultural variations
Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor intelligence
Piaget’s term for the way infants think
Primary Circular Reactions
First 3 stages of feedback loops in sensorimotor intelligence
Infant senses motion, sucking, noise, and other stimuli and tries to understand them
Stage 1: 1 month- stage of reflexes
Stage 2: 1-4 months- stage of first habits
Secondary Circular Reactions
The second of 3 types of feedback loops in sensorimotor intelligence
Infants respond to other people, to toys, and to any other object that they can touch or move
Stage 3: 4-8 months-making interesting sights last
Stage 4: 8 months - 1 year- new adaptation and anticipation
Tertiary Circular Reactions
The third of three types of loops in sensorimotor intelligence
Stage 5: 12-18 months- new means through active experimentation
“Little scientist”
Stage 6: 18-24 months- mental combinations
Deferred imitation
Information-processing approach
Perception is a cognitive accomplishment that requires selectivity
Affordance- an opportunity for perception and interaction that is offered by a person, place, or object in the environment
Visual Cliff
Memory improves month by month
Children of all ages remember what they need to remember
Sensory and caregiver memories are apparent in the first month, motor memories by 3 months and complex memories at about 9 months
Infants can remember when motivation and emotion is high, and retrieval is strengthened by reminders and repitition
Child-directed speech
Habituation
Babbling- occurs between 6 and 9 months
First words occur at about a year
Holophrase: a single word used to express a complete, meaningful though
Naming explosion- sudden increase in infant’a vocabulary
Mean length of utterance (MLU)- average number of words in a typical sentence
Typically used to measure language development
Theories of language learning
Infants need to be taught
B.F. Skinner
Social impulses foster infant language
Infants teach themselves
Language acquisition device
Noam Chomsky
Hybrid Theory
Emotional Development
Early emotions
Birth- distress; contentment
6 weeks- social smile
3 months- laughter; curiosity
4 months- full, responsive smiles
4-8 months- anger
9-14 months- fear of social events
12 months- fear of unexpected sights and sounds
18 months- self-awareness; pride; shame; embarrassment
“Hard crying” is not rare
In infancy, anger is a healthy response to frustration
Sadness produces psychological stress that can be measured by cortisol levels
2 kinds of social fear
Stranger wariness
Separation anxiety
Social awareness
Self-awareness- apparent between 15-24 months
Temperament- inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation
Measured by the person’s typical response to the environment
Three dimensions of temperament
Effortful control (able to regulate attention and emotion, to self-soothe)
Negative mood (fearful, angry, unhappy)
Exuberant (active, social, not shy)
Synchrony- coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant
Still-face technique
Attachment- an affectionate tie that an infant forms with a caregiver
Stages of attachment
Indiscriminate- 6 weeks - 7 months
Discriminate- 7 months
Multiple- 10+ months
Preattachment- birth - 6 weeks
Patterns of attachment
Insecure-avoidant
Secure
Insecure-resistant/ambivalent
Disorganized
Strange situation: Mary Ainsworth
John Bowlby
Social referencing- seeking information about how to react to an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or event by observing someone else’s expressions and reactions
Theories
Psychoanalytic
Freud: Oral and Anal Stages
Oral- 1st year of life
Anal- 2nd year of life
Erickson: Trust and Autonomy
First crisis of life is trust vs mistrust
Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs are met
Second crisis of life is autonomy vs shame and doubt
Beginning at 18 months, toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies
Behaviorism
Proximal parenting
Distal parenting
Cognitive Theory
Working model- a set of assumptions that the individual uses to organize perceptions and experiences
Evolutionary Theory
Emotions for survival
Cost of childrearing
Allocare- “other care”
Sociocultural Theory
Infant day care
International variations
Quality care
Early Childhood
Biosocial
Body Changes
Children slim down as body lengthens and fat turns to muscle
BMI is lowest at ages 5 and 6
Obesity is a sign of poor nutrition, likely to reduce immunity and later increase disease
Connection between obesity and low SES
Appetite decreases between ages 2 and 6
Children do not always obtain adequate iron, zinc and calcium
Many children have cavities and decaying teeth before age 6
An estimated 3%-8% of children are allergic to a specific food, almost always a common, healthy one
2 year old’s brain weighs 75% of what it will weigh in adulthood
6 year old brain is 90% of adult weight
As prefrontal cortex matures, social understanding develops
Myelination
Neurological control advances significantly between ages 2 and 6
Sleep becomes more regular
Emotions become more nuanced and responsive
Temper tantrums subside
Uncontrollable laughter and tears are less common
Impulse control
Perseveration
Motor skills
Environmental substances directly impair brain development in young children, especially those in low SES families
Asthma is more prevalent among children who live in poverty than among those who don’t
Lead is severely toxic
Gross motor skills improve dramatically during early childhood
Fine motor skills are harder to master than gross motor skills
Many fine motor skills involve two hands and both sides of the brain
Traditional school necessitates fine motor skills and body control
Slow maturation is one reason many 6 year old are frustrated if teachers demand they write neatly and cut straight
Fine motor skills mature about 6 months earlier in girls than in boys
Boys are often ahead of girls in gross motor skills
These gender differences may be biological, or they may result from practice
Young children are imaginative, creative, and not yet self-critical
All forms of artistic expression blossom during early childhood
Cultural and cohort differences are apparent in all artistic skills
Injuries, Abuse and Maltreatment
In some nations, malnutrition, malaria, and other infectious diseases combined cause more infant and child deaths than injuries do
Not until age 40 does any specific disease overtake accidents as a cause of mortality
In accidents, 2-6 year olds are more often seriously hurt than 6-10 year olds
Immaturity of prefrontal cortex makes young children impulsive
Injury control/harm reduction- practices aimed at anticipating, controlling, and preventing dangerous activities
Levels of prevention
Primary prevention- actions that change overall background conditions to prevent some unwanted event or circumstance
Secondary prevention- actions that avert harm in a high risk situation
Tertiary prevention- actions, such as immediate and effective medical treatment, that are taken after an adverse event
Child maltreatment- intentional harm to or avoidable endangerment of anyone under 18 years old
Child abuse- deliberate action that is harmful to a child’s physical, emotional, or sexual well-being
Child neglect- failure to meet a child’s basic physical, educational, or emotional needs
Substantiated maltreatment- harm or endangerment that has been reported, investigated, and verified
Reported maltreatment- harm or endangerment about which someone has notified the authorities
5:1 ratio of reported versus substantiated cases occur
No one know how often maltreatment occurs
PTSD
Consequences of maltreatment involve not only the child but also the entire community
Long term effects of maltreatment depend partly on the child’s interpretation at the time
Permanency planning- an effort by child welfare authorities to find a long term living situation that will provide stability and support for a maltreated child
Foster care
Kinship care
Cognitive
Thinking
Piaget- Pre operational thought
Preoperational intelligence- Piaget’s term for cognitive development between ages of 2 and 6: involves symbolic thought
Centration- a characteristic of preoperational though in which a young child focuses on one area, excluding all others
Animism- the belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive, moving around and have sensations and abilities that are human like
Egocentrism- Piaget’a term for children’s tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective
Focus on appearance- a characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child ignores all attributes that are not apparent
Static reasoning- a characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child that’s that nothing changes
Irreversiblility- a characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child thinks that nothing can be undone
Conservation- the principle that the amount of a substance stays the same even when it’s appearance changes
Young children fail to understand conservation because they focus on what they see, noticing only the immediate condition
Vygotsky- Social Learning
Children learn through guided participation
Zone of proximal development- Vygotsky’s term for the skills, cognitive as well as physical, that a person can exercise only with assistance, not yet independently
Scaffolding- temporary support that is tailored to a learner’s needs and abilities and aimed at helping the learner master the next task in a given learning process
Over imitation- when a person imitates an action that is not a relevant part of the behavior to be learned. Common among 2-6 year olds
Private speech- the internal dialogue that occurs when people talk to themselves either silently or loud
Social mediation- human interaction that expands and advances understanding, often through words that one person uses to explain something to another
STEM- science, technology, engineering, math
Executive function- the cognitive ability to organize and prioritize the many thoughts that arise from the various parts of the brain, allowing the person to anticipate, strategize, and plan behavior
Children’s Theories
Theory-theory- the idea that children attempt to explain everything they see and hear by constructing theories
Piaget and Vygotsky agree that children work to understand the world
Theory of mind- a person’s theory of what other people might be thinking. Seldom occurs before age 4
Both theory of mind and executive function advance as memory improves, experience builds, and the prefrontal cortex matures
Language Learning
Brain maturation, myelination, scaffolding, and social interaction make early childhood ideal for learning language
Sensitive period
Vocabulary explosion- average child knows about 500 words at age 2 and more than 10,000 at age 6
Fast mapping- speedy and sometimes imprecise way in which children learn new worlds by tentatively placing them in mental categories according to their perceived meaning
Logical extension- after learning a word, children use it to describe other objects in the same category
Overregularization- the application of rules of grammar even when exceptions occur, making the language seem more “regular” than it actually is
Pragmatic- practical use of language that includes the ability to adjust language communication according to the audience and context
Early childhood is the best time to learn languages
Language shift- when children become more fluent in the school language than in their home language
Early Childhood Schooling
Child centered programs stress each child’s development and growth
Montessori schools- schools that offer early childhood education based on the philosophy of Maria Montessori, which emphasizes careful work and tasks that each young child can do
Reggio Emilia- a program of early childhood education that originated in the town of Reggio Emilia, Italy, and that encourages each child’s creativity in a careful designed setting
Teacher directed programs stress academics, often taught by one adult to the entire group
Goal is to make all children “ready to learn”
Head start- a federally funded early childhood intervention program for low income children of preschool age
Quality of early education matters
Psychosocial
Emotional Development
Emotional regulation- the ability to control when and how emotions are expressed
Self-concept- a person’s understanding of who he or she is, in relation to self-esteem, appearance, personality, and various traits
Effortful control- the ability to regulate one’s emotions and actions through effort, not simply through natural inclination
Initiative versus guilt- Erikson’s Third psychosocial crisis, in which children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilty when they do not succeed at them
Neurological advances in the prefrontal cortex around ages 4 or 5 make children less likely to throw tantrums, pick fights, or giggle during prayer
Marshmallow test
Maturation matters
Learning matters
Culture matters
Intrinsic motivation- a drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that comes from inside a person, such as the desire to feel smart or competent
Extrinsic motivation- a drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that arises from the need to have one’s achievements rewarded from outside, perhaps by receiving material possessions or another person’s esteem
Imaginary friends
Play
Young children play best with peers
Mildred Parten’s 5 stages of play
Solitary- a child plays alone, unaware of other children playing nearby
Onlooker- A child watches other children play
Parallel- Children play in similar ways but not together
Associative- Children interact, sharing toys, but not taking turns
Cooperative- children play together, creating dramas or taking turns
Pretend play
Social play
Play with peers is one of the most important areas in which children develop positive social skills
Children need physical activity to develop muscle strength and control
Rough and tumble play- play that mimics aggression through wrestling, chasing, or hitting, but in which there is no intent to harm
Sociodramtic play- pretend play in which children act out various roles and themes in stories that they create
Empathy- the ability to understand the emotions and concerns of another person, especially when they differ from one’s own
Prosocial behavior- actions that are helpful and kind but are of no obvious benefit to oneself
Antisocial behavior- actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person
Instrumental aggression- behavior that hurts someone else because the aggressor wants to get or keep a possession or a privilege
Reactive aggression- an impulse retaliation for another person’s intentional or accidental action, verbal or physical
Relational aggression- Nonphysical acts, such as insults or social rejection, aimed at harming the social connection between the victim and other people
Bullying aggression- the most ominous type of aggression: unprovoked, repeated physical or verbal attacks, especially on victims who are unlikely to defend themselves
Challenges for Caregivers
Expressions of warmth- Some parents are warm and affectionate; others are cold and critical
Strategies for discipline- parents vary in how they explain, criticize, persuade, and punish
Expectations for maturity- parents vary in expectations for responsibility and self-control
Communication- some parents listen patiently; others demand silence
Authoritarian parenting- an approach to child rearing that is characterized by high behavioral standards, strict punishment for misconduct, and little communication from child to parent
Permissive parenting- an approach to child rearing that is characterized by high nurturing and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control
Authoritative parenting- an approach to child rearing in which the parents set limits but listen to the child and are flexible
Neglectful/ uninvolved parenting- an approach to child rearing in which the parents are indifferent toward their children and unaware of what is going on in their children’s lives
Diana Baumrind
Studies did not consider many different factors
Corporal punishment- punishment that physically hurts the body, such as slapping, spanking, etc
Psychological control- a disciplinary technique that involves threatening to withdraw love and support and that relies on a child’s feelings of guilt and gratitude to the parents
Time out- a disciplinary technique in which a child is separated from other people for a specified time
Induction- a disciplinary technique in which the parent tried to get the child to understand why a certain behavior was wrong. Listening, not lecturing, is crucial
Phallic stage- Freud’s Third stage of development, when the penis becomes the focus of concern and pleasure
Oedipus complex- unconscious desire of young boys to replace their father and win their mother’s romantic love
Superego- in psychoanalytic theory, the judgmental part of the personality that internalizes the moral standards of the parents
Identification- an attempt to defend one’s self concept by taking on the behaviors and attitudes of someone else
Gender schema- cognitive concept or general belief based on one’s experiences, in this case, a child’s understanding of sex differences
Middle Childhood
Biosocial Development
School age children grow slowly and steadily in the body and brain
Children become more self-sufficient
Between ages 6-12, baby teeth fall out and are replaced by permanent teeth
Peers and parent are crucial in learning about health and self care
Exercise improves physical health and reduces depression- may also improve academic achievement
A well-function body helps a child to learn
Selective attention- the ability to concentrate on some stimuli while ignoring others (improves around age 7)
Reaction time- The time it takes to respond to a stimulus, either physical or cognitively
Neighborhood play is active, interactive, and inclusive
Neighborhood play is an ideal way to develop many skill
Children most likely to benefit are the least likely to participate due to low SES
CHildhood overweight- In a child, having a BMI above the 85th percentile, according to the US CDC 1980 standards of children of a given age
Eliminating recess in schools may reduce children's mastery of reading and math, contrary to what many in the US believe
Some chronic conditions worsen in middle childhood which can make children self-conscious
Childhood obesity- in a child, having a BMI above the 95th percentile, according to the US CDC 1980 standards of chiildren of a given age
In 2012, 18% of 6-11 year olds were obese
If a child is critically ill, obesity adds to the risk, making death more likely
As excessive weight builds, school achievement decvreases, self esteem falls, and loneliness rises
Children with poor social skills and few friends are more likely to become obese and vice versa
Dozens of genes affect weight by influencing activity level, hunger, food preferences, body type, and metabolism
Context and culture are crucial for healthy eating habits
Hygiene Hypothesis- the immune system needs to tangle with microbes when we are young
Asthma- a chronic disease of the respiratory system causing diffulty in breathing
Developmental psychopathology- the field that uses insights into typical development to understand and remediate developmental disorders
comorbid- refers to the presence of two or more unrelated disease conditions at the same time in the same person
Aptitude- the potential to master a specific skill or to learn a cedrtain body of knowledge
Intelligence- The ability to learn and understand various aspects of life, traditionally focused on reading and math, and more recently on the arts, movement, and social interactions
Achievement test- a measure of mastery or proficiency in reading, mathematics, writing, science, or some other subject
Flynn effect- The rise in average IQ scores that has occured over the decades in many nations
Multiple Intelligences- the idea that human intelligence is composed of a varied set of abilities rather than a single, all-encomapssing one
Robert Sternburg and Howard Gardner
Heightened brain activity may be a sign of a disorder, not of intelligence
3 generalities
Brain development depends on experiences
Dendrites form and myelination changes throughout life
Children with disorders often have unusual brain patters, and training may change those patterns
Multifinality- A basic principle of developmental psychopathology which holds that one cause can have many (multiple) final manifestations
Equifinality- A basic principle of developmental psychopathology which holds that one symptom can have many causes
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder- A condition characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention and/or by hyperactive or impulsive behaviors; ADHD interferes with a person’s functioning or development
there is no biological marker for ADHD
Specific learning disorder- A marked deficit in a particular area of learning that is not caused by an apparent physical disability, by an intellectual disability, or by an unusually stressful home environment
Dyslexia- Unusual difficulty with reading, thought to be the result of some neurological underdevelopment
Dyscalculia- Unusual difficulty with math, probably originating from a distinct part of the brain
Dysgraphia- Difficulty in writing
Autism spectrum disorder- A developmental disorder marked by difficulty with social communication and interacting, including difficulty seeing things from another person’s point of view and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities
Neurodiversity- The idea that people with special needs have diverse brain structures, with each person having neurological strengths and weaknesses that should be appreciated, in much the same way diverse cultures and ethnicities are welcomed
Least restrictive environment- A legal requirement that children with special needs be assigned to the most general educational context in which they can be expected to learn."
Divergent thinkers- find many solutions and even more questions for every problem
Convergent thinkers- quickly aware of the correct answer for every problem and impatient with the child who is more creative
Response to intervention- An educational strategy intended to help children who demonstrate below-average achievement in early grades, using special intervention
Individual education plan- A document that specifies educational goals and plans for a child with special needs
Acceleration
Cognitive Development
Piaget
Concrete operational thought
Egocentrism dimishes
Logical thinking begins
Children can understand logical concepts of conservation, classification, and seriation
Vygotsky
Culture and context affect more than academic learning
Culture affects what children learn and how they learn
Information Processing Perspective
Robert Siegler
Examines each step of thinking process
Automatization- A process in which repetition of a sequence of thoughts and actions makes the sequence routine so that it no longer requires conscious thought
Memory
Sensory memory- The component of the information-processing system in which incoming stimulus information is stored for a split second to allow it to be processed- also called the sensory register
Working memory- The component of the information-processing system in which current conscious mental activity occurs. (Short-term memory)
Long-term memory- The component of the information-processing system in which virtually limitless amounts of information can be stored indefinitely
Knowledge base- A body of knowledge in a particular area that makes it easier to master new information in that area
Control Processes- mechanisms that combine memory, processing speed and knowledge to regulate the analysis and flow of information
Language
Vocabulary builds because concrete operational children are more logical
Cognitivbe flexibility of children ages 6-11 allow them to understand metaphors
Pragmatics become evident
Allows children to change linguistics codes
Immersion- A strategy in which instruction in all school subjects occurs in the second language that a child is learning
Bilingual schooling- A strategy in which school subjects are taught in both the learner’s original language and the second language
Children from low-SES families usually have smaller vocabularies than those from higher-SES families, grammar is also simpler
Hidden curriculum- The unofficial, unstated, or implicit patterns within a school that influence what children learn
Trends in Math and Science Study- An international assessment of the math and science skills of fourth and eighth graders
Progress in International Reading Literacy Study- Inaugurated in 2001, a planned five year cycle of international trend studies in the reading ability of fourth graders
Gender differences in school
National Assessment of Educational Progress- An ongoing and nationally representative measure of U.S. children’s achievement in reading, mathematics, and other subjects over time, nicknamed the Nation’s Report Card
Vouchers
Home-schooling
Charter schools
Psychosocial Developnent
Self-concept becomes more complex and logical
Social comparison- The tendency to assess one’s abilities, achievements, social status, and other attributes by measuring them against those of other people, especially one’s peers
Erikson
Fourth psychological crisis: Industry vs Inferiority- children attempt to master many skills, developing a sense of themselves as either industrious or inferior, competent or incompetent
Resilience is dynamic and a positive adaption
A long string of daily hassles is more devastating than an isolated major stress
Parentification- When a child acts more like a parent than a child. (Parentification may occur if the actual parents do not act as caregivers, making a child feel responsible for the family)
Shared environments vs nonshared environments
Family structure- the legal and genetic relationships among relatives living in the same home. Possible structures include nuclear family, extended family, stepfamily, single-parent family, and many others
Diverse structures: nuclear family, single-parent family, extended family, polygamous family
Family funtion- children attempt to master many skills, developing a sense of themselves as either industrious or inferior, competent or incompetent
Peers teach crucial social skills
Low income and high conflict affect every family funtion
Family-stress model
Bullying has long term consequences for both bully and victim
4 types of bullying: physical, verbal, relational, cyber
Aaggressive-rejected- A type of childhood rejection, when other children do not want to be friends with a child because of his or her antagonistic, confrontational behavior
Withdrawn-rejected- A type of childhood rejection, when other children do not want to be friends with a child because of his or her timid, withdrawn, and anxious behavior
Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Thought
Preconventional moral reasoning- Kohlberg’s first level of moral reasoning, emphasizing rewards and punishments (similar to preopoerational thought)
Conventional moral reasoning- Kohlberg’s second level of moral reasoning, emphasizing social rules (similar to concrete operational thought)
Postconventional moral reasoning- Kohlberg’s third level of moral reasoning, emphasizing moral principles (similar to formal operational thought)
His descriptions have been criticisized for ignoring gneder and cultural differences
Moral judgement improves during middle childhood
Peer values, cultural standards, and family practices are all important to a child's personal morality
If values conflict, children are more likely to choose loyalty to peers over adult standards of behavior