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WGC - CH1 - Geography and Development in an Era of Globalization - Coggle…

- - - - Development is a term applied to the process of change, or lack of change
      - industrialising a country's economic performance may be deficient when measured by these standards in comparison to postindustrial states, the same country may be highly developed in other dimensions of human activities, such as art, homeopathic medicine, environmental values, or care of the elderly.
      - we generally use expressions such as developed to describe material and nonmaterial aspects of growth and change in in countries and regions
      - in addition to material indicators, such as gross national income, industrial output, etc nonmaterial parameters might include nutritional status, adult literacy rate, demographic trends, life expectancy at birth.
        
        material indicators
        
        Gross National Income
        
        Industrial Output
        
        Non material indicators
        
        nutritional status
        
        Adult literacy rate
        
        life expectancy at birth
    - - development is a process of change that may or may not embrace the developmental ideals associated with North America and Europe, these ideas might not be desirable for other countries, which cant even make these ideas work in their culture.
      - Development is a process of change that is not necessarily synonymous with economic growth
      - Improvements in welfare may come from such a simple expedients as providing clean water to an isolated rural community, which may make village families happy and healthy but is unlikely to cause a spike in the local stock market.
        
        some cultures may object to the materialistic impulses that create economic growth
      - Development is also a process of change that is sustainable in a dual sense that improvements in human welfare today should not be achieved at the expense of future generations, and should be made in a matter sensitive to environmental impact.
      - Development can be defined as a process of change that leads to improvement well-being in people's lives, takes into account the needs of future generations, and is compatible with local cultural and environmental contexts.
        
        People
        
        their numbers distribution, consuption, production, and technology base
        
        Natural environment
        
        provides both the stage for development and the materials necesary to achieve developmental goals,
        
        some environments have abundant supplies of raw materials that can be used for economic gain, others dont
        
        Culture
        
        the way in which a society organizes itself in terms of beliefs, values, customs, and lifestyles
        
        many cyltures embrace materialistc values, as in the acquisition of wealth and success
        
        others dont place so high a priority on material achievement.
        
        social and political structure of a society also has a direct influence on development.
        
        some countries have achieved a high level of social and political equality, assuring the fullest possible development of their human resources.
        
        others are characterized by rigid social stratification, gender inequalities, and political control by elites that prevent large portions of their populations from achieving their true potential.
        
        collective values of some cultures encourage the adoption of new idas and technologies, while those of others discourage experimentation and change.
        
        History.
        
        the past is a key to the present and a guidepost to the future is well demonstrated in the formation of the world's various cultures and their economic activities.
  - - - such change is slow and plodding, and hardly perceptible over time.
      - sometimes change occurs rapidly and massively, leading to a fundamental transformation of society.
      - benefits of the agricultural revolution were limited to a more sedentary version of a subsistence existence, which was still an improvement over the migratory hunter-gatherer societies that existed previously.
      - in a sense the agricultural revolutons have never completely ended
      - A second revolution began in Europe, in which technologies and procedures were applied to farming, partly to increase farmings, commercial potential.
      - in the twentieth century, still another revolution occurred that replaced most farm labor with machinery and eventually led to a corporate takeover of the family farms.
      - biosciences revolutions has altered the nature of agriculture buy introducing new crop varieties and generating dramatically higher yields
      - the green revolution combined selected high yielding crop varieties with technological packages of fertilizers pesticides, water management to boost yields.
      - a revolution is a fundamental way in which something is done
        
        by the twentieth century it was time for a fundamental change in the way that goods were made, a manufacturing or Industrial Revolution
        
        in mid 1700 Europe and North America entered an age of mas production of manufactured goods, using more sophisticated technology and large industrial workforces., this fundamental change in manufacturing represented a response to at least two major forces
        
        an age of innovation had dawned thanks to the thinking and discoveries of the Renaissance, which led to the introduction of new technologies to speed up the production of goods.
        
        Coal became the industrial fuel of choice
        
        machinery replaced muscle power and inanimate energy replaced animate energy
        
        manufacturing no longer was a single activity done by a craftsman in his shop but a volume enterprise carried out in a factory
        
        demand for processed goos exceed what the cottage industries and craft shops of the day could produce, and the more efficient factory was the only way ro supply this demand.
        
        over time, craftsmen an small guilds gradually disappears or remained in isolated pockets as quaint reminders of a pre-revolutionary past.
        
        It later spawned companion revolutions
        
        development of the stream led to the transportation revolution
        
        steam power significantly diminished the friction of distance, or difficulty of moving from place to place, before railroads, a traveler walked, after railroads, we have now airlines
        
        transport efficiency contributed to production efficiency in manufacturing centers.
        
        Currently an Information Revolution is reshaping societies, economies, and personal lives.
        
        also called the New Economy, we are really looking at the second great information revolution.
        
        first revolution was the first printing press, from Gutenberg in 1450,
        
        this is a matter of how the information is produced, stored, accessed, and applied that creates a revolution in the Information Age, it all boiled down to a single transforming technology: the microprocessor
        
        mechanical computers existed, like the abacus, but the lowering of scale and increase of processing power is what has created the information revolution of today.
        
        in partnership with the microchip, innovations in communications technology for the revolutionary changes of the late tewnetier century, The Internet
        
        satellites and cellular phone technology have made wireless voice and data communication the norm rather than the exception,
        
        Time and distance constraints have not disappeared, but they have been modified by the ability to contact a significant proportion of the rest of the world by simply punching a number.
    - - at the dawn of the agricultural revolution, animals and crops where domesticated and population was quite low.
      - Population clusters usually associated with areas of agricultural surplus.
      - today only polar zones, remote drylands and other harsh physical environments do small and dwindling numbers of people still live by the age - old occupations of hunting, fishing and gathering.
      - in the christian era
        
        population totaled 260 million,
        
        lived within the Roman Empire
        
        The Hand Dynasty of China
        
        The Mauryan Empire of Northern India
      - today, an increasingly large proportion of the population is living in cities, some of which have the populations of medium-sized countries.
        
        Population distribution (the spatial arrangement of people
        
        population density (the number of people per unit area
        
        three principal centers of dense population are apparent: the Indian Subcontinent, eastern China, and adjacent areas, and Europe.
        
        Psychologic density, the number of people per square mile of arable land, is a useful expression of the density relationship in agricultural societies.
      - Overall population growth rate is 1.1% a year, but that growth is by no means uniform.
        
        one growth pattern theory of demographic transition is based on four population stages
        
        Stage 1, agrarian society
        
        birthrates and death rates are high, creating a stable or very slowly growing population
        
        productivity per person is limited
        
        large families are an economic asset, particulary since life expectancy is low and security depends on family memebrs, iuncluding yourn children
        
        employment opportunities outside of agriculture are few and technology develops very slowly.
        
        Stage 2
        
        cultural custom of large families persists, the birthrate remains high.
        
        Death rate fdrops dramatically due to better sanitation and medical treatment and because of greater productivity
        
        appearannce of alternative economic activity resulting from industrialization
        
        urbanization and labor specialization also comes here.
        
        Rapid population increase
        
        Stage 3
        
        continued urbanization, industrialization and other economic trends begun in previous stages.
        
        demographic conditions change, birthrate begins to drop rapidly as smaller families become more prealent
        
        children in urban environment are generally economic liabilities rather than assets
        
        population continues to grow but in an ever-slowing pace
        
        Stage 4
        
        population growth is stabilized
        
        birthrate and death rates are low
        
        population is urbanized
        
        birth control is widely practiced
        
        population density may be quite high.
        
        Malthusian theory
        
        Humans tend to reproduce prolifically, geometrically and the capacity to produce food and fiber expands more slowly.
        
        population growth eventually exceeds the food supply unless population growth is checked by society
        
        if growth continues, surplus populations will be reduced by war, disease , and famine
        
        if we plot it in a graph there are three stages and outcomes flowing from the relationship between population and production
        
        stage 1
        
        human needs are not as great as production capacity
        
        Stage 2
        
        production capacity and increased human needs are roughly equal
        
        Stage 3
        
        population growth has reached a point where its needs can no longer be met
        
        population dies off, and we cannot be sure what follows.
        
        One idea is that stage 3 is simply a repetition of Stage 2, with alternating periods of growth and die-off
        
        Another idea is that the die-off is so great that Stage 1 is reproduced
        
        This theoretical die-off has not occurred, owing in part to the enormous increase in production associated with the industrial revolution
        
        Malthus assumed that people would reject birth control on moral grounds and he could not foresee the impact of the Industrial Revolutions
        
        Neo Malthusians, have argued that the population production crisis has merely been delayed, and disaster may yet strike
  - - - integration and interdependeance is associated with a wide range of technological, cultural, and economic outcomes that affect our daily lives
        
        Communication is virtually instanteneous and worldwide
        
        a visit to the mall is a visit to the factories of the world
        
        a job gained or lost may reflect a decision made by a global corporation
        
        a car asembled in the US contain parts from around the rold.
      - a growing integration and interdependence of world communities through a vast network of trade and communication links
      - A globalizing world constitute a response to two major forces
        
        Technology change
        
        theres virtually no place in the world that canot be reached farther than a mouse click away.
        
        computing technologies make it possible to create, access, store and process extraordinarily large quantities of data with breathtaking speed, thereby making all aspects of society and business more productive.
        
        Global Capitalism
        
        neoliberal practices, government leaders have joined their business counterparts in expressing a renewed faith in the power of freely operating markets and unimpeded trade to create prosperity.
        
        less government leads to greater economic efficeincy
        
        decreased government regulation and ownership of economic activities, reduced government spending, and elimination of trade barriers.
        
        a rising tide of propserity will lift all boats, they argue, and will do nwhatt no government polcity has yet done in overcoming the scourge og global poverty.
        
        the free market mantra has helped generate extraoridnatry wealth, critics contend that the costs of global capitalism outweththe benefits,
        
        costs include the destruction of farms, manufacturers unable to compete in the global economy, instability of businesses and worker livelihood, the breakdown of social fabrics, and consequent outbreaks of violence, the sudden disruptions of production and capital, and a race to the bottom as communities and countries compete for investment based on low wages, low taxes, and minimal labor and environmental regulation.
        
        Neoliberal policies had its biggest critics faced in 2008, when the economic collapse happened due to corporate greed.
      - Globalization is not new, Europe embarked on a journey of world discovery that led to increased global interdependence.
    - - Translational Corporations, which have offices, production facilities, and other activities in multiple countries, they are geographically mobile and can take advantage of lower labor costs in one country or a more lenient regulatory environment in another country to minimize production costs and/or to maximize revenues.
        
        highly mobile global corporations have the means to circumvent the power of national governments, and they can to some degree.
      - Countries remain major players because they can still limit access to their spaces, impose regulations on corporations operating in their spaces, and come together to create multi-state authorities, like the EU, they still have power in a globalizing world.
      - Labor is another important variable, but is more or less fixed in space and has limited bargaining abiluty in the global ecnomu., if it becomes to expensive, the corp moves to another place that's cheaper
      - But consumers call the shots, if they stop buying, corporations will start dying, we now live in a world in which products can be marketed to global consumers.
      - Regulatory organizations and civil movements influence the way in which global society and economy function. (IMF) (WTO), etc.
    - - certain homogenization has occurred, but the penetration of local cultures by outside influences is only skin deep, the essential cultural characteristics that distinguish people have bot been obliterated.
      - local cultures tend to domesticate imported consumer culture by giving it a local flavor.
      - even the use of English is not as homogenous as one might think, there are different accents and expressions.
      - Many countries promote a consumer nationalism that encourages local over foreign goods.
      - Globalization forces have led to an aneveness un the geography of development, Winners incluyde world cities, also consumers who pay less for goods comng from low cost prouction aborad, and workers who work in global corporate activities, transnational capitalist class.
      - Winners also include countries that have been able to transform their low-wage economies into destinations for industries that pay higher wages and are more technologically sophisticated, a process that is at least partly due to trade ties developed as part of the globalization process.
      - Losers include
        
        people who lost jobs due to wage competition
        
        people too poor to take advantage of the consumer benfits of globalization
        
        people affected by pollution and other harmful environmental outcomes of industrial expansion
        
        people who emigrate because poverty at home but become economically marginalized in their destination countries
        
        cities that are just ordinary, not world class
        
        countries that suffer resource depletion to support the needs of global corporations.
        
        Expectations gap created when impoverished people in developing countries are exposed to advertising and other messages that broadcast lifestyle ideals that are both alien to local cultures and hopelessly out of reach from an income perspective.
    - - there are geographical super regions, such as global cores and peripheries
        
        the US, Canada, the European Union, Australia/New Zealand, Japan, and Israel currently compose the global core, the periphery are about everyone else.
        
        Core and peripheries are not permanent.
        
        Brazil, China, India and South Korea, may soon become core status
      - it is important to recognize that globalization does not necessarily lead to development, and whether it ever will is still subject to debate.
- - - - plains, with little slope or local relief
        
        used for settlement and production
      - plateaus, level land at high elevations
      - hills, with moderate to seep slopes, and moderate local relief
      - mountains, with steep slopes and great local relief
        
        small basins and valleys become the focus of settlement
    - - Precipitation, water vapor that condenses in the atmosphere and then drops to the surface. rainfall is the most common, but snow, sleet, etc is also considered.
      - Temperature, impacts plants, water, and soil conditions.
        
        Low temperature
        
        the length of the frost-free period, related to latitude, altitude and large bodies of water.
        
        high temperature
        
        increases evaporation and plant transpiration and produces a high evapotranspiration rate
    - - closely associated with climate
      - a very cold climate (tundra) has little woody vegetation because the growing season is short and the subsoil is permanetly frozen
      - more humid climates are capable of supporting forest vegetation
      - natural vegetation is expected in an area if vegetation succession was allowed to proceed over a long period without human interference
      - Most vegetation today reflects the activity of human activity.
      - Environmental stewardship, the imperative to manage resources wisely.
    - - Energy Sources
        
        petroleum and natural gas has increased rapidly in the world's leading industrialized regions since World War 2
        
        petroleum replaced coal use because petroleum and natural gas are relatively cleaner sources of energy, cost less to transport, and contribute less to habitat destruction and air pollution
        
        a higher cost of petroleum is generating a move back to coal.
        
        fossil fuels, coal, petroleum, gas are used to process large quantities of materials
      - Minerals
        
        metallic, iron, aluminum, copper, chromium, zinc, lead, gold, and silver
        
        nonmetallic, nitrogen, calcium, potash, phosphate.
    - - laterization, infertile soils are formed in the humid tropics
      - podzolization, occurs in high altitudes where normal leaching is limited because rainfall is low or the ground is frozen, poor drainage and partly decomposed vegetation produced an acidic soil with low fertility.
      - calcification, when drier margins of humid regions and in arid zones where limited precipitation leads to greater accumulations of humus and calcium carbonate, but the moisture deficiency leads them to less productive.
      - Alluvium, is a soil transported and deposited by water
      - Loess, is transported by wind
    - - only 1/5 of earth's land surface is densely occupied by humankind
      - nearly 80% of the world's land surface is too steep, wet, dry, or cold to support many people.
      - a correlation between population and physical environment is an oversimplification, technology an political organization are additional factors to consider, also culture and economic organization
      - avoiding environmental deterioration at a time when increasing population and expanding expectations place ever greater demands on environmental systems is difficult
      - Ethnoscience the knowledge of how to use certain land passed from generations to generations
  - - - Centers of Origin
        
        The middle east is one of the earliest and most influential culture hearths, known as the fertile crescent, the region consisted of several hearths: the nile river valley; the hills of Southern Turkey and western Iran; and the alluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
        
        these societies codified laws, used metals, established math, contributed three of the world's greatest religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
        
        Values and political systems
        
        Value systems and political ideologies have major implication for social unity, stability, and the use of land and resources,
        
        some governments assume complete control on the allocation of resources, capital and even labor.
        
        other societies provide an environment in which individuals determine the use of resources.
        
        The history of innovations developed in one culture hearth is their spread to other places. This process of diffusion was slow and often interrupted, but it gradually brought adjacent parts of the world into increasingly closer contact.
        
        Acculturation, the process by which a group takes on some of the cultural attributes of another society, does not occur without conflict.
        
        Language, gives meaning to various sounds used in common by a number of people, it is the basic means by which culture is transferred from one generation to the next, it also acts as a barrier
        
        Lingua franca a language that is used throught a wide area for commercial or political purposes by people with different native tongues
        
        Religion, belief systems originate in the desire to understand life's purposes and share support from and with others of similar views
        
        Animism, the worship of natural objects believed to have souls or spirits
        
        ethnic religion, limited to a group with a common heritage
        
        universalizing religion, wanting to be accepted by everyone.
        
        they spread from one person or group to another.
        
        sacred structures shape rural and urban landscapes, and influence the daily lives of people
        
        one function of religion is to promote cultural norms, which may be positive, societies can benefit from this, but it can also lead to conflict.
        
        While cultural convergence occurs everywhere, regional differences in economic, social, and environmental conditions will produce new and unique systems that are place specific.
      - All elements that form a society's way of life, from values to technology constitute its culture
        
        is made up of a hierarchy of traits, complexes, and realms
        
        a culture trait is the way a society deals with a single activity
        
        a culture complex is a group of traits that are employed together in a more general activity such as agricultural production
        
        a culture realms is a region in which most of the population shares a similar culture
        
        A culture hearth is a source area in which a culture complex has become so well established and advanced that its attributes are passed to future generations within and outside the immediate hearth area
  - - - Humans are changing the world, and they are not conscious of the impact that they have over the earth
      - land degradation, when an area becomes less biologically productive or its usefulness to humans is reduced
    - - deep experiential knowledge is built up over generations as the experiences, trial and error experiments, and lessons of living in a place are passed on from generation to generation.
      - creative destruction, transforms nature and produces systems that can potentially support human communities for hundreds of years.
        
        humans do this every time they remove a plant community in an area in favor of another, they cut trees to plant a cornfield.
        
        humans destroy in order to create.
        
        the critical feature of creative destruction is that the transformed agroecosystem must be sustainable and endure for a long time.
        
        when miscalculations or the impacts of creative destruction are not well measured, sacrifice zones are created, which are the environmental impacts and financial costs that harm people and places distant from the change, but directly related.
        
        The precautionary principle
        
        minizing environmental disruption, while maximizing sustainability (long-term survival and use)
  - - - local scale
      - regional level
      - national level
      - global level
  - - - Per capita Income
        
        weaknesses
        
        the average does not account for income distribution
        
        it doesn't include purchasing power parity
        
        the world still has rich countries and poor countries
      - agricultural production
        
        The primary level of economic activity
        
        agriculture, mining, forestry, and fishing
        
        secondary level
        
        transforming raw materials into usable goods, such as manufacturing
        
        tertiary level
        
        provision of goods and services
        
        countries with strong secondary and tertiary components usually have greater per capital GNI's and consume more energy
        
        the higher the proportion of labor force in agriculture, the lower the per capita GNI is likely to be
        
        More developed nations use technological innovations to outperform agricultural capabilities
      - Industrial production
      - Per Capita Inanimate Energy Consumption
        
        the degree to which a country is able to supply inanimate energy from internal sources or to import it is an important indicator of applied modern technology and of productivty
        
        per capita inanimate energy uses measures production in term of power expended.
        
        a high energy consumption is correlated by industrialized society
      - Other measures of development
        
        life expectancy is a measure of the end result of economic activity
        
        number of calories available
        
        protein supply
      - Combined development Measures
        
        HMI Human Development Index, derived from Life expectancy at birth, educational attainment, and income.
  - - - traditional society in which most workers are engaged in agriculture
      - preconditions for takeoff is the second stage, initaited internally by the desire for a higher standard of living, or externally by forces that intrude into the region, production increases to cause fundamental changes in attitudes and alter individual and national goals
      - takoff, third stage, when new technologies and capital are applied and production is greatly increased, manufacturing and services become more important, infrastructure improves and expands, political power shifts to an urban-based elite
      - drive to maturity, fourth stage, urbanization progresses, manugacturing and service activies become more important.
      - final stage, 5, high mass consumption, personal incomes are high, abundant goods, services readily available, Individuals no longer worry about securing the basic necessities of life, and can devote their energies to noneconomic pursuits.