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Early childhood - Coggle Diagram

- - - - The penis becomes the focus of concern and pleasure
      - Boys masturbate, fear castration, and develop sexual feelings towards their mother
        
        Oedipus complex
        
        The unconscious desire of young boys to replace their father and win their mother's romantic love
    - - The judgmental part of the personality that internalizes the moral standards of the parents
      - A boy's fascination with superheroes, guns, kung fu, and the like arises from his unconscious impulse to kill his father
        
        An adult man's homosexuality, homophobia, or obsession with guns, prostitutes, or hell arises from problems at the phallic stage
    - - The reason 5 year old girls dress in frill and lace and are happy to be daddy's girl
    - - An attempt to defend one's self-concept by taking on the behaviors and attitudes of someone else
  - - - Boys are rewarded for boyish requests, not girlish ones
      - The push towards traditional gender behavior in plat and chores is among the most robust findings
  - - - A cognitive concept or general belief based on one's experiences; a child's understanding of sex differences
    - - Nuances, complexities, exceptions, and gradations about gender are beyond them
  - - - Parents encourage gender differences without realizing it
  - - - Boys have a powerful urge to become like the men and girls like the women
- - - - The center of gravity moves from the breast to belly
        
        Cartwheels, somersaults, and other motor skills are enabled
    - - By 6 years old
        
        Is at least 3.5 feet tall
        
        Weighs between 40 and 50 pounds
        
        Looks lean, not chubby
        
        Has adult-like body proportions, legs constitute about half the total height
  - - - Adults encourage children to eat because of the protective instinct against famine
      - A family income decreases, malnutrition and obesity increases
        
        Obesity is a sign of poor nutrition
        
        Is likely to reduce immunity and later increase the risk of disease
      - Family habits common among lower social status families
        
        Less exercise
        
        More television
        
        Fewer vegetables
        
        More fast food
      - A life-span explanation links childhood stress to adult obesity
      - Appetite decreases between ages 2 and 6
        
        Obesity increases every year from birth through adolescence
      - Parents urge children to eat because they underestimate their weight
    - - Young children consume more than enough calories
        
        Iron, zinc, and calcium are not always obtained
      - Eating a wide variety of fresh food may be essential for optimal health
        
        Children that eat more dark green and orange vegetables and less fried food benefit in many ways
        
        Gain bone mass but not fat
      - Sugar is a major problem
        
        Customs entice children to eat sweets
        
        Birthday cake, holiday candy, dessert, sweetened juice, and soda
        
        Sweetened cereals and drinks are a poor substitute for a balanced varietal diet
        
        Many children have cavities and decaying teeth before the age 6
    - - An estimated 3 to 8 percent of children are allergic to specific food
        
        Common and healthy allergies
        
        Cow's milk
        
        Eggs
        
        Peanuts
        
        Tree nuts
        
        Soy
        
        Wheat
        
        Fish
        
        Shellfish
      - Allergies can be totally avoided or gradually consumed to increase tolerance
      - Pregnant women that ingest peanuts found that their children are less likely to be allergic
  - - - The brain at age 2 weighs 75 percent what it will weigh in adulthood
        
        Increase in brain weight is because of myelination
        
        Axons become coated with myelin
        
        A fatty substance that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron
    - - Children gradually become better at controlling their emotions around others
        
        Brain development as time passes and family experience are connected to this control
        
        The amount of control is determined by brain maturation and learning to dispute
    - - Sleep becomes more regular
      - Emotions become more nuanced and responsive
      - Temper tantrums subside
      - Uncontrollable laughter and tears and less common
    - - Neurons have two kind of impulses, activate-inhibit
      - Many children are unbalanced neurologically
        
        They are impulsive, flitting from one activity to another
        
        Impulse control
        
        The ability to postpone or deny the immediate response to an idea or behavior
        
        Persevaration
        
        The tendency to persevere in, or stick to, one thought or action for a long time
      - Immaturity of the prefrontal lobe makes it impossible to moderate the limbic system to regulate attention
    - - When an adult demands answers in a stern yes or no, stressful manner, memories are less accurate
        
        People need to remember experiences that arouse their emotions so they can avoid or adjust to similar experiences in the future
        
        The brain protects itself from too much stress by shutting down
      - A balance of arousal and reassurance is needed to require speedy coordination among many part of the brain
  - - - Gross motor skills improve dramatically during early childhood
        
        At 2 years old, children fall down and bump clumsily into each other
        
        By 5 years old, coordinated dance steps, tumbling tricks, or sport moves can be performed
      - Some 5 year olds can perform activities that require balanced coordination and both brain hemispheres
        
        Skate, ski, dive, and ride a bike
      - Children learn best from peers who demonstrate whatever the child is ready to try
    - - Fine motor skills are harder to master than gross motor skills
        
        Whistling, winking, and writing are difficult
        
        Pouring juice into a glass, cutting food with a knife, and achieving anything artful other than a scribble require muscular control, patience, and judgement that is beyond 2 year olds
      - Many skills involve two hand which uses both sides of the brain
      - Fine motor skills mature six months earlier in girls than in boys
        
        Boys are usually ahead of girls in gross motor skills
- - - - Language and imagination occurs, but logical, operational thinking is not yet possible
        
        Between the ages 2 and 6
    - - A major accomplishment that allow a child to think symbolically, including understanding that words can refer to things not seen and that an item can symbolize something else
      - Explains animism
        
        The belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive, moving around, and having sensations and abilities that are human-like
    - - Centration
        
        A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a child focuses on one idea, excluding all others
        
        Egocentrism
        
        Children's tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective
      - Focus on appearance
        
        A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child ignores all attributes that are not apparent
        
        A thing is whatever it appears to be
      - Static reasoning
        
        A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child thinks that nothing changes
        
        Whatever is now has always been and always will be
      - Irreversibillty
        
        A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child thinks that nothing can be undone
        
        A thing cannot be restored to the way it was before a change occurred
  - - - Present challenges
      - Offer assistance without taking over
      - Add crucial information
      - Encourage motivation
    - - Zone of proximal development
        
        A person can exercise only with assistance, not yet independently
      - Temporary support that is tailored to a learner's needs and abilities and aimed at helping the learner master the next task in a given learning process
    - - When a person imitates action that is not a relevent part of the behavior to be learned
        
        Common among 2 to 6 year olds
    - - Private speech
        
        The internal dialogue that occurs when a person talk to themselves
      - Social mediation
        
        Human interaction that expands and advances understanding, often through words that one person uses to explain something to another
    - - Science
      - Technology
      - Engineeering
      - Math
      - By age 3 or 4, children's brains are mature enough to comprehend numbers, store memories, and recognize routines
        
        Understanding of math develops month by month before age 6
  - - - The idea that children attempt to explain everything they see and hear by constructing theories
      - Humans seek reasons, causes, and underlying principles to make sense of their experiences
      - Requires curiosity and thought, connecting bits of knowledge and observations
    - - A person's theory of what other people might be thinking
      - Children must realize that other people are not necessarily thinking the same thoughts that they themselves are
        
        Occurs before age 4
  - - - At age 2 a child knows about 500 words
      - At age 6 a child knows more than 10,000 words
        
        The estimate vocabulary size vary from 5,000 to 30,000
      - Fast-mapping
        
        The speedy and imprecise way in which children learn new words by tentatively placing them in mental categories to their perceived meaning
    - - Children apply rules of grammar as soon as they figure them out, using their own theories about how language works and their experience regarding when and how various rules apply
      - Overregularization
        
        The application of rules of grammar even when exceptions occur, making the language seem more regular than it actually is
      - Pragmatics is more difficult to learn
        
        The practical use of language that includes the ability to adjust language communication according to audience and context
    - - If adults learned two languages as a child, both languages are located in the same areas of the brain with no detriment to the cortex structure
      - Being bilingual benefits the brain lifelong which is further evidence of plasticity
        
        The bilingual brain may provide some resistance to neurocognitive disorder due to Alzheimer's disease
- - - - The ability to control when and how emotions are expressed
      - By age 6, most children can be angry, frightened, sad, anxious, or proud without the explosive outbursts of temper, terror, or years of 2 year olds
        
        Depending on temperament, some emotions are easier for a child to control than others, but even temperamentally angry or fearful children learn to regulate their emotions
      - Self-concept
        
        A person's understanding of who he or she is, in relation to self-esteem, appearance, personality, and various traits
        
        In early childhood, they begin to understand some of their characteristics, which include what emotions they feel and how they express them
      - Effortful control
        
        The ability to regulate one's emotions and actions through effort, not simply through the natural inclination
        
        Difficult when people of any age are in pain, tired, or hungry
        
        Executive function emphasizes cognition, effortful control emphasizes temperament
    - - Erikson's third psychosocial crisis, on which children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilty when they do not succeed at them
      - If a project fails, adults usually suggest trying again or blaming the blocks of playmate
        
        Helps the child avoid guilt
      - If parents ignore rather than guide joy and pride, or worse blame the child for being ignorant, clumsy, and so on, the child may not learn emotional regulation
        
        Parents who blame their children and who have poor emotional regulation themselves are likely to have children who do not learn how to regulate their own emotions
      - Brain maturation
        
        The new initiative results from myelination of the limbic system, growth of the prefrontal cortex, and a longer attention span
        
        Advances in the prefrontal cortex at about the age 4 or 5 make the children less likely to throw tantrums, pick fights, or giggle during prayer
        
        During early childhood, violent outbursts, uncontrolled crying, and terrifying phobias diminish
    - - The impulse that propels someone to act
        
        Comes from either desire or social context
      - Intrinsic motivation
        
        A drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that comes from inside a person
        
        Advances creativity, innovation, and emotional well-being
        
        Erikson's psychosocial needs are intrinsic
      - Extrinsic motivation
        
        A drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that arises from the need to have one's achievements rewarded from outside, perhaps by receiving material possessions or another person's esteem
    - - Empathy and antipathy
        
        Empathy
        
        The ability to understand the emotions and concerns of another person
        
        Empathy leads to compassion and prosocial behavior
        
        Actions that are helpful and kind but are of no obvious benefit to oneself
        
        Antipathy
        
        Children who dislike other children
        
        Antipathy may lead to antisocial behavior
        
        Actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person
        
        Aggression
        
        Instrumental aggression
        
        Behavior that hurts someone else because the aggressor wants to get or keep a possession or a privilege
        
        Increases from ages 2 to 6, involves objects more than people, more egocentric than antisocial
        
        Reactive aggression
        
        An impulsive retaliation for another person's intentional or accidental action, verbal or physical
        
        Indicates a lack of emotional regulation, characteristic of 2 year olds
        
        Relational aggression
        
        Nonphysical actions, such as insults or social rejection, aimed at harming the social connection between the victim and other people
        
        Involves a personal attack and is directly antisocial
        
        Bullying aggression
        
        Unprovoked, repeated physical or verbal attacks, especially on victims who are unlikely to defend themselves
        
        A sign of poor emotional regulation in victim and bully
    - - Authoritarian parenting
        
        An approach to child rearing that is characterized by high behavioral standards, strict punishment for misconduct, and little communication from child to parent
        
        Children are conscientious, obedient, and quiet but not happy. They may feel guilty or depressed, internalizing their frustrations and blaming themselves when things don't go well
        
        As adolescents, they sometimes rebel and leave home before the age 20
      - Permissive parenting
        
        An approach to child rearing that is characterized by high nuturance and communication but little disciple, guidance, or control
        
        Children lack self-control, especially in the give-and-take of peer relationships
        
        Inadequate emotional regulation makes them immature and impedes friendships, so they are unhappy and tend to continue living at home being dependent on their parents
      - Authoritative parenting
        
        An approach to child rearing in which the parents set limits but listen to the child and are flexible
        
        Children are successful, articulate, happy with themselves, and generous with others. Usually liked by teachers and peers
      - Neglectful/uninvolved parenting
        
        An approach to child rearing in which the parents are indifferent towards their children and unaware of what is going on in their children's lives
        
        Children are immature, sad, lonely, and at risk of injury and abuse in early childhood and lifelong
    - - Corporal punishment
        
        Punishment that physically hurts the body
      - Psychological control
        
        A disciplinary technique that involves threatening to withdraw love and support and that relies on a child's feelings of guilt and gratitude to the parents
      - Time out
        
        A disciplinary technique in which a child is separated from other people for a specified time
      - Induction
        
        A disciplinary technique in which the parent tries to get the child to understand why a certain behavior was wrong