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Theories of religion - Topic 1 - Beliefs in society - Coggle Diagram
Theories of religion - Topic 1 - Beliefs in society
Sociologists define religion in 3 main ways:
substantive definition
focuses on content or substance of religious belief. they state that to be in a religion, a set of beliefs must include belief in God or the supernatural
functional definitions
defined in terms of SOCIAL OR PSYCHOLOGICAL functions and can include a wide range of beliefs and practices
social constructionist definitions
interpretivist approach that focuses on how members of society themselves define religion. do not assume that religion always involves a belief in God
FUNCTIONALIST theories of religion
see society as a system of interrelated parts or social institutions - each part has an essential function in keeping society 'healthy'
society will only function if there is social order and solidarity. order is made possible by the value consensus (shared norms)
EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917)
sacred symbols (although they differ) perform the function of uniting believers into a single community. sacred things are symbols of society itself
studies of the Australian aboriginal tribe Arunta
the clan comes together to worship the sacred Totem, the worship is the clan worshiping society and the sacred symbols represent societies shared conscience (norms, values, beliefs). reinforced by shared rituals which remind them of the power of society
CRITICISMS
WORSLEY (1956) says the evidence on totemism is unsound - different clans share the same totems meaning there is no sharp division between the sacred and the profane
POSTMODERNIST STJEPHAN MESTROVIC argue Durkheim's ideas cannot be applied to contemporary society
religion is the source of our intellectual cognitive capacities and the origin of human thought, reason and science
BRONISLAW MALINOWSKI (1954)
psychological functions
religion promotes solidarity performing psychological functions for individuals, helping to cope with emotional distress that would undermine society
there are two situations:
where the outcome is important but is uncontrollable and thus uncertain
studied Trobriand Islanders from the Western Pacific. fishing in the lagoon was safe vs fishing in the ocean was unsafe but accompanied by 'canoe magic' rituals to ensure safe trip
at times of life crises
religion helps to minimise disruption (births, puberty, marriage and death mark major disruptive changes) funerals reinforce solidarity among survivors brings comfort
TALCOTT PARSONS (1967)
sees religion as helping individuals to cope
two essential functions:
creates and legitimises societies central values by making norms and values sacred, religion creates and legitimises them
it is the primary source of meaning - gives answers to ultimate questions about the human condition. religion provides a source of meanings and prevents life from seeming meaningless
ROBERT BELLAH (1970)
interested in how religion unites multi-faith societies
Civil Religion unifies America
a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself
integrates society, involving loyalty to nation, state and belief in God which is expressed through rituals, symbols and beliefs (e.g. national anthems)
FEMINIST theories of religion
regard religion as a patriarchal institution that reflects and perpetuates this inequality of male domination
religious beliefs function as a patriarchal ideology that legitimates female subordination
evidence of patriarchy
religious organisations are male dominated
KAREN ARMSTRONG (1993) women's exclusion from priesthood (catholicism) as evidence of marginalism
places of worship often segregate sexes and women can't read/preach sacred texts
JEAN HOLM (1994) calls this the devaluation of women in contemporary religion
sacred texts feature male gods, prophets and stories reflect anti-female stereotypes - Eve and the garden of Eden
religious laws and customs can give women fewer rights than men and get unequal treatment such as genital mutilation. religions legitimate women's traditional domestic and reproductive role
LINDA WOODHEAD (2002) argues the exclusion of women from Catholic priesthood is evidence of unease about women's emancipation
HOWEVER
women have not always been subordinated to men in religion
KAREN ARMSTRONG (1993) early religions placed women at the centre - earth mother goddesses were found throughout Middle East until 6,000 years ago - with the rise of monotheistic religions (one god)
NAWAL EL SAADAWI (1980) argues oppression is the result of patriarchal forms of society coming into existence. men reinterpreted beliefs in ways to favour patriarchy. the rise of monotheism legitimated power of men over women
LINDA WOODHEAD (2002) says not all religions are traditionally patriarchal and there are religious forms of feminism where women use religion to gain greater freedom and respect
the hijab or veil worn by Muslim women is a form of resistance to oppression, it's a symbol of liberation that enables them to enter the public sphere without loosing their culture and history
the Church of England has permitted women ordination to the priesthood since 1992
women use religion to gain status and respect for their roles within the private sphere of the home and family
belonging to an evangelical group can be empowering for women - they strongly believe men should respect women
MARXIST theories of religion
KARL MARX sees religion as another feature of a class-divided society
the ruling class uses religion to serve it's own needs and use it as an ideological weapon to justify he suffering of the poor as inevitable and God given
misleads poor to think their suffering will mean they'll be favoured in the afterlife
creates a false consciousness - a distorted view of reality that prevents the poor from acting to change their situation
MARK LEVIN describes religion as a 'spiritual gin' - an intoxicant given to masses by the ruling class to confuse them
ruling class use religion cynically to manipulate by creating a 'mystical fog'
product of alienation - workers are alienated and not free to express themselves so they turn to religion
"religion is the opium of people" KARL MARX
CRITICISMS
marx ignores positive functions of religion. NEO-MARXISTS see some forms of religion as assisting not hindering class consciousness
MARXIST ALTHUSER (1971) rejects the concept of alienation as unscientific and based on a romantic idea that humans have a 'true self' - makes concept inadequate basis