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Anathomy and Physiology, 3 main types - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Sternum, scapulae, ribs & most skull bones.
      - Thin, flat & often curved.
    - - Odd shapes.
      - Hip bones & vertebrae.
    - - Carpal bones of the wrist and tarsal bones of the foot.
      - Often cubed or round in shape.
    - - Short bones within tendons.
      - Patella
    - - Serves as a storage area for bone marrow.
      - Longer than they are wide.
      - Femur, tibia, fibula, metatarsals, and phalanges.
  - - - Appositional
      - Interstitial
    - - Elastic Cartilages
        
        More elastic fibers.
        
        Found in external ear & epiglottis.
      - Fibrocartilage
        
        Rows of chondrocytes with thick collagen fibers.
        
        Highly compressible with great tensile strength.
        
        Found in menisci of knee, intervertebral discs & pubic symphysis.
      - Hyaline Cartilages
        
        Fine collagen fiber matrix.
        
        Found in articular, costal, respiratory and nasal cartillages.
    - - Tough, resilient.
      - New cartilage forms from chondroblasts.
      - Mostly water.
      - Heal poorly.
  - - - Runs along the body’s midline axis.
      - Made up of 80 bones.
    - - Made up of 126 bones
  - - - Compact bone
        
        Haversian system
        
        Lamella
        
        Haversian, or central canal
        
        Volkmann’s canals
        
        Osteocytes
        
        Lacunae
        
        Canaliculi
    - - Long bone
        
        Compact bone
        
        White, and solid appearance.
        
        May also be referred to as dense bone or cortical bone.
        
        Composed of compact bone tissue.
        
        Spongy bone
        
        Composed of a network of rod- and plate-like elements.
        
        Accounts for the remaining 20% of total bone mass.
  - - - Regulate the movement of calcium and phosphate into and out of the bone.
    - - Respond to traumas, such as fractures, by giving rise to bone-forming cells and bonedestroying cells.
    - - Mature bone cells that maintain healthy bone tissue by secreting enzymes and controlling the bone mineral content.
    - - Large cells that break down bone tissue.
    - - Bone forming cells that synthesize and secrete unmineralized ground substances.
  - - - Where muscles, tendons and ligaments attach.
        
        Tubercle – small rounded projection
        
        Tuberosity – rounded projection
        
        Crest – narrow, prominent ridge of bone
        
        Trochanter – large, blunt, irregular surface
        
        Line – narrow ridge of bone
        
        Epicondyle – raised area above a condyle
        
        Spine – sharp, slender projection
        
        Process – any bony prominence
      - That Help to Form Joints.
        
        Head – bony expansion carried on a narrow neck
        
        Facet – smooth, nearly flat articular surface
        
        Condyle – rounded articular projection
        
        Ramus – armlike bar of bone
    - - Meatus – canal-like passageway
      - Sinus – cavity within a bone
      - Fossa – shallow, basinlike depression
      - Groove – furrow
      - Fissure – narrow, slitlike opening
      - Foramen – round or oval opening through a bone.
    - - Sites of attachment for muscles, ligaments, and tendons
      - Joint surfaces
      - Conduits for blood vessels and nerves
  - - - Nondisplaced
        
        Bone ends retain their normal position.
      - Displaced
        
        Bone ends are out of normal alignment.
      - Complete
        
        Bone in broken all the way through.
      - Incomplete
        
        Bone is not broken all the way through.
      - Compound
        
        Bone ends penetrate the skin.
      - Simple
        
        Bone ends do not penetrate the skin.
    - - Impacted
        
        Piece of bone is pushed down into another.
      - Fissure
        
        Cracks in the bone.
      - Avulsion
        
        Pieces of the bone have been pulled apart.
      - Depressed
        
        Broken bone portion pressed inward.
      - Spiral
        
        Ragged break when bone is excessively twisted.
      - Greenstick
        
        Incomplete fracture.
      - Comminuted
        
        Bone fragments into three or more piece.
      - Compression
        
        Bone is crushed.
      - Oblique
        
        Diagonal breaks across the bone.
      - Epiphyseal
        
        When cartilage cells are dying.
      - Transverse
        
        The fracture is perpendicular to the long axis of the bone.
      - Linear
        
        The fracture is parallel to the long axis of the bone.
    - - Injury – broken blood vessels, hematoma
      - Invasion of blood vessels & generalized cells (2-3 days)
      - Fibroblasts develop (1 week)
      - Chondroblasts develop
      - Callus forms (4 weeks)
      - Remodeling with osteoclasts (8 weeks)
  - - - The snap and pop of overstressed cartilage
      - Common aerobics injury
      - Repaired with arthroscopic surgery
    - - Occur when bones are forced out of alignment
      - Usually accompanied by sprains, inflammation, and joint immobilization
      - Caused by serious falls and are common sports injuries
      - Subluxation – partial dislocation of a joint
    - - The ligaments reinforcing a joint are stretched or torn
      - Partially torn ligaments slowly repair themselves
      - Completely torn ligaments require prompt surgical repair
- - - - Terminal hair
        
        Terminal hairs are thick, coarse hairs that grow during puberty.
      - Vellus hair
        
        Vellus hair is short, fine downy hair found all over the body except for the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. It is thinner than lanugo.
      - Lanugo
        
        Lanugo, colloquially referred to as "peach fuzz", is very fine, soft hair often found on infants. If lanugo grows on the body of an adult, it is typically a sign of anorexia nervosa.
  - - - Prevents bacterial invasion
      - Glycolipids prevent diffusion of water and water-soluble between cells
      - Penetration enhancers
      - Keratine helps waterproof the skin and prects from abrasions and bacterias
      - Due to skin properties like: kerantinzed cell and waterproof properties od glycolipids
    - - Melanin provides protection from UV damage
      - Skin secretions
      - Skin secretions such as sebum, human defensis, acid mantle of the skin retards bacteria or kills them
      - Low pH and sebum slow bacterial growth on skin surface
      - Human defensin - natural antibiotic
      - Cathelicidins - proteins that prevent Step A infection in wound skin
      - Melanin - chemical pigment that prevents UV damage
    - - Langerhan’s cells and macrophages present in the skin helps activate the body’s immune system.
      - DNA structure – the electrons in DNA absorb UV radiation and converts it to heat
      - Dermal macrophages (2nd line of defense) – attack bacteria and viruses that have penetrated the
        epidermis
      - Langerhans’ cells in epidermis present antigens to lymphocytes
      - Largenhans’ cells, macrophages, and DNA
  - - - Types of cells
        
        Melanocytes
        
        8% of the epidermal cells
        
        Produces melanin
        
        Contributes to skin color and absorbs UV
        light
        
        Langerhans cells
        
        Constitute small portion of epidermal
        cells
        
        Participate in immune responses
        
        Arise from red bone marrow and
        migrate to the epidermis
        
        Easily damaged by UV light
        
        Keratinocytes
        
        Contains keratin (fibrous protein)
        
        Protects and waterproofs the skin
        
        90 % of epidermal cells are keratinized
        
        Merkel cells
        
        Found in the deepest layer of the
        epidermis
        
        Along with tactile discs, they function in
        sensation of touch
        
        Least numerous of the epidermal cells
      - Layers
        
        Stratum granulosum
        
        3-5 layers of flattened keratinocytes undergoing
        apoptosis
        
        Organelles begin to disintegrate becomes nonliving cells
        
        Located above the stratum spinsosum
        
        Marks the transition between deeper metabolically active strata and the dead cells of
        the superficial strata.
        
        Contains lamellar granules
        
        Secretes lipid-rich secretion that acts as a water
        sealant
        
        Stratum spinosum
        
        Some cells retain their ability for cell division
        
        Cells have spinelike projections (bundles of
        filaments of the cytoskeleton) tightly joins cells
        to each other.
        
        8-10 layers of keratinocytes
        
        Provides skin both strength and flexibility
        
        Located above the stratum basale
        
        Stratum basale
        
        Deepest layer of the epidermis
        
        Single row of cuboidal or columnar keratinocytes
        
        Also referred to as stratum germinatum because this is where new cells are formed
        
        Stratum lucidum
        
        Present only in thick skin
        
        3-5 layers of clear, flat, dead keratinocytes
        
        Dense packed intermediate filaments
        
        Thick plasma membranes
        
        Stratum corneum
        
        Shed continuously and replaced by cells from the
        deeper strata
        
        Serves as a water, microbe, injury barrier
        
        25-30 layers of dead flat keratinocytes
      - Growth
        
        They accumulate more keratin during the process
        
        Then they undergo apoptosis
        
        Newly formed cells in the stratum basale undergo keratinazation as they are pushed to the surface.
        
        Eventually they slough off and are replaced
        
        The process takes about 4 weeks
        
        Rate of cell division in the stratum basale increases during injury
      - Types
        
        Thick (hairless) skin - covers the palms, palmar surfaces of digits and soles. More skin receptors and sudoriferous glands and fewer sebaceous glands. Skin ridges (e.g., fingerprints) are found due to well-developed dermal papillae. Skin ridges aid in grip and object manipulation.
        
        Thin (hairy) skin - covers all body regions except the palms, palmar surface of digits, and soles of the feet. Usually 1-2 mm thick. Thin skin has fewer skin receptors and sudoriferous glands and more sebaceous glands.
      - Composed
        
        By primarily of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
    - - What it is
        
        Collagen fibers comprise 70% of the dermis and give structural toughness and strength
        
        Composed mainly of connective tissues
        
        Second deepest part of the skin
        
        Blood vessels, nerves, glands and hair follicles are embedded
        here
        
        2 layers
        
        Papillary layer
        
        Superficial portion of the dermis
        
        Consist of areolar connective tissue containing elastic fiber
        
        Surface area is increased due to projections called dermal papillae which
        contains capillaries or tactile receptors
        
        Epidermal ridges conforms to the dermal papillae
        
        Reticular layer
        
        Consist of dense irregular connective tissue containing collagen/elastic
        fibers
        
        Provides skin with strength and elasticity
        
        Deeper portion of the dermis
        
        Contains hair follicles, nerves, sebaceous and
        sudoriferous glands
      - Skin color
        
        Dermal Circulation
        
        Vitamin D3 Synthesis
        
        Pigmentation
        
        one of the two major methods of skin coloration
        
        Melanin
        
        Located mostly in epidermis
      - Skin appearances
      - Hypodermis
    - - Located underneath the dermis
      - Composed of areolar/adipose connective tissues that anchors skin to the underlying structures -mostly muscles - and insulates/absorbs shock
    - - The integument covers the entire body and is the largest organ ~ 2 meters and heaviest organ
        16% of body mass of the body
  - - - hyponychium, eponychium (the cuticle), nail matrix, lunula, nail plate, nail root, free margin, and the paronychium.
  - - - Develop during puberty
      - located in the ear canal, around the eyes and nose, under the arms, on the areola of the breasts, and in the pubic regions
      - Mammary (milk) glands are one type of modified apocrine gland. Earwax, or cerumen, is secreted by ceruminous glands, the other type of modified apocrine gland.
      - Typical apocrine glands secrete sweat.
    - - Secrete sebum, an oily substance which lubricates hair and skin.
      - Located in the dermis layer and are generally connected to hair follicles, except for in hairless areas such as the eyelids.
      - Present everywhere except for areas with thick skin, i.e. the palms of the hands and soles of the feet.
    - - Typically secrete sweat
      - There are two types of sudoriferous glands: apocrine and eccrine.
      - Found mostly on areas of thick skin.
    - - Present at birth and continue to secrete sweat from then on
      - Produce sweat secretion, made of water and sodium chloride
      - Found everywhere without thick skin