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Outcome 1.2 - Assess the usefulness of investigative techniques in…
Outcome 1.2 - Assess the usefulness of investigative techniques in criminal investigations
Intelligence
This is information that has been obtained from many sources, often including confidential sources, and has been recorded and evaluated.
Forensics
the scientific techniques and tests used to aid a criminal investigation ie. DNA/ Fingerprints/ Blood and Fibre Analysis/ Pathology/ Post Mortem
Alec Jefferys developed DNA profiling in 1985 to allow us to identify responsibility and to attach responsibility to a suspect who was trying to evade police intervention.
Relatives have similar profiles to other family members and this can be used as a technique to identify perpetrators. This was an effective technique to identify perpetrators in the case of Collette Aram who was raped and murdered in 1983 by Paul Hutchinson's son was arrested for a motoring offence and a routine DNA sample was taken which partially matched the DNA taken from Collette's crime scene.
Evaluation
Contamination can lead to miscarriages of justice e.g the case of Adam Scott
Also obtain a match with DNA from a crime scene the offender or a close relative must already be on the National Database.
The cost of analysing a DNA sample is approximately £20 but in their infancy they were expensive.
Surveillance
means watching over someone or something
covert surveillance e.g. pynoptican is planned out in advance and carried out in such a way that those who are being monitored are unaware. It can be done through tracking devices or intercepting mail/phones.
An example is the Heathrow Heist
Covert Human Intelligence Sources are individuals who maintain a relationship with the 'target' in order to covertly gain information. They may be; undercover police officers using a false identity or informants who are themselves criminal.
we can use the case of Rachel Nickell and Donny Brasco to discuss the effectiveness of this
observation is not pre-planned so a routine police officer may see something suspicious an he will watch on to see if a crime will be or has been committed.
Interviews
Eye witness misidentification is the single most greatest factor in wrongful convictions.
People claimed to get a good look at the Bandana Bandit however his mugshot and suspect sketch looked nothing alike
Features most helpful when identifying someone are scars and other things that they cannot change or remove
Memory problems with EWT
Memory Aquisition - several factors effect successfulness such as time of day and violent distractions.
Memory Retention- effected by discussion of the event and time
Loftus and Palmer found that misleading and guiding questions can influence someones answer and their memory of the event
Evaluation
provides insightful leads/ only way to gather first hand information
anxiety and stress can distort testimony/ reconstructed memory is subjective/ weapon focus/ leading questions
the cognitive review is suggested to be used rather than police interviews as they use trigger words to jog someone's memory in order to gain a full description of all events and then deciding what is important information, not the other way round.
Expert Witnesses
forensic experts will always be interviewed for information for clarification purposes
e.g. forensic entomology work with insects to understand how long the body has been dead
expert knowledge is weighed heavy by the judge and jury so that can be detrimental if the expert knowledge is wrong or inaccurate e.g. the case of Sally Clarke
Profiling Techniques
This is when they predict the characteristics of an offender based on their behaviour at the crime scene allowing them to workout what crimes have been committed by the same offenders, predict future crimes, and help police prioritisation
Typological profiling (crime scene analysis)
classify offenders into different categories based on behaviour
organised and disorganised
David Canter suggests crime scene evidence may be limited and not collected under strict conditions/ speculation about the offender doesn't mean an automatic catch/ based upon subjective opinion/ typology is based on a stuf=dy of 36 convicted serial killers and rapists that the FBI interviewed.
Clinical Profiling
clinical psychiatrists/ psychologists use their proffessional experience to get inside the mind of the offender by looking at each as an individual to gain insight into their behaviour.
Evaluation
it is based on profilers experience of working with offenders which may be untypical
it could produce unsupported speculations about offenders characteristics which can lead to the offender being able to continue to operate.
Geographical profiling
where the offender chooses to commit the crime is based on the non-criminal behaviour and we ca work from crime scenes offenders address based on least effort principle and buffer zone principle.
Canter and Gregory Theory
The Marauder - a home range and travels within it moving out from home in a different direction each time so not to return to the same area
The commuter- travels a far distance from home and once their commits many offences in a small area.
Effectiveness
The two models assume offenders have one pattern of behaviour
reliant upon accurate recording of geographical locations
method has had some successes in predicting where to find an offender
Investigative Psychology
Associated with Canter and adds ideas from geographical profiling such that offenders are likely to offend in areas they are familiar with.
Offender consistency principle - behaviour is the same between offending and non-offending so the way in which the offender commits a crime reflects his characteristics in every day life.
Instrumental Opportunistic crime scene - sexually motivated/ face hidden/ lack of clothes
Instrumental cognitive crime scenes - hidden crime/ outside/ forensic knowledge/ murder is a by-product
Expressive Impulsive crime scene - weapon from scene/ multiple wounds to legs and torso
Things they look for
physical appearance
time and space
forensic awareness
criminal career
criminal characteristics
Criminal Narrative Themes - Criminals base their offending on personal life stories that give their crimes meaning
Evaluation
uses concepts tested in practise
both large scale data and narrative themes to know motives
proved successful in different crimes
dependent upon quality of data on offences and offenders