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Biology U3AOS2 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - secreted by immune cells, travel in blood, target proteins, immune cells, inflammation, infection and trauma. eg. interferons (antiviral agents, interleukins (promote inflammation
    - - produced by neurons and released into general circulation (blood)
    - - produced in endocrine glands, secreted by external glands into environment and picked up by another animal of the same species
    - - produced in specialised cells
      - auxins: cell division and growth
      - cytokinins: increase cell division
      - gibberellins: cell division and growth
      - abscisic acid: dormancy
      - ethylene: ageing
    - - stored in synaptic vesicles, travel across synaptic gaps
    - - produced in endocrine glands, travel in the blood, target specific cells with specific receptors, eg. insulin, melatonin, testosterone
  - - - signal from cell's external environment such a hormone, neurotransmitter etc
    - - signal is transformed into a form creates response
    - - comprises of physical biochemical or physiological changes brought about by effector proteins
  - - - plasma membrane forms blebs on surface
      - nucleus collapses, organelles remain unaffected
      - nucleus and DNA break up
      - cell breaks into apoptotic bodies
      - bodies are then reabsorbed by phagocytosis
      - nuclear membrane degrades
      - cell shrinks and loses contact with other cells
  - - - signal moves through bloodstream to target cell (moves a large distance)
    - - signal moves to a target cell in the immediate vicinity
    - - signal produced and received by the same cell
- - - - scan for MHC class 1 markers, secrete perforin and granzymes, trigger apoptosis, can produce death ligands
    - - scan for MHC class 2 markers, releases cytokines to help activate cytotoxic T cells and B cells
  - - - produce antibodies specific to one antigen, bind to antigen and inactivate it through neutralisation, clumping, phagocytosis or precipitation
    - - stay for life (usually), assist if a pathogen returns
- - - - antibodies acquired from external source (e.g. mother during pregnancy)
    - - without deliberate intervention
    - - through deliberate intervention (e.g. vaccine)
    - - antibodies produced by a person's own adaptive immune system
  - - - killed bacteria or inactivated viruses are used, usually they killed/inactivated via heat or chemicals
    - - bacterial toxins treated to form harmless toxoids, used for pathogens that cause disease by secreting poisonous toxins (e.g. venoms)
    - - contain weakened pathogens but don't cause disease but still reproduce, stimulates the much higher and longer level of antibodies
    - - contain one more subunits of a pathogen that act as antigens stimulating antibody formation
- - - - retrovirus that replicates in helper T cells (host cells), T cells cannot then fight of pathogens and immune system fails
  - - - activation of mast cells
      - inflammatory response
      - sensitisation
  - - - autoantibodies attack the myelin that forms an insulating sheath around nerve fibres in the brain and spinal cord
  - - - stopping the growth of new blood vessels, signalling immune cells to attack, blocking signals for cell division
- - - - prevents more pathogens from entering, repairs wounds, helped by platelets in the blood
    - - caused by interleukins, increased body temperature to fight off pathogens
    - - limits infection, redness & swelling (dilation of blood vessels), histamine (causes more phagocytes to move to infection)
    - - recognise distress signals from infected cells and kills them with cytotoxins
    - - engulf pathogens and digest them (eg. macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils)
  - - - released by virus-infected cells to warn neighbouring cells, slows spread
    - - oponise pathogens (make them more recognisable)
      - attract phagocytes
      - membrane attack complex (MAC) - puts a hole in plasma membrane
- - - - non-self cells, found on pathogens and cancer cells, trigger in the response
    - - type of non-self antigen, only trigger a response in some people
    - - self cells, found on plasma membrane, don't trigger response
  - - - Viruses
        
        noncellular, genetic material (DNA or RNA) surrounded by protein coat, replicate inside host, transmitted easily, vaccines used to prevent transmission
      - Fungi
        
        multi-cellular, have a rigid cell wall, have DNA and RNA and reproduce through spores or fragmentation
      - Bacteria
        
        cellular, have DNA, divide by binary fission very quickly, treated by antibiotics
      - Protozoa
        
        single-cell eukaryotes, have both DNA and RNA, get food from external environment, commonly known as parasites
      - Prions
        
        non-cellular, proteins, self-reproducing, no DNA or RNA found in brain, immune system doesn't react as they are present from birth
      - Macroparasites
        
        multi-cellular multiply outside the host had DNA and RNA, visible to the naked eye, common in areas of poor sanitation