Chapter 10-12
Structure of genetic material
Bacteriophage: viruses that infect bacteria.
Phage: what "bacteria-eaters" are called for short.
DNA and RNA
Transcription of a gene
Nucleotide: the long chains (polymers) and chemical units (monomers) in DNA and RNA.
Polynucleotide: the individual nucleotide polymer chain.
Sugar-phosphate backbone: the covalent bond between sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next.
Deoxyribonucleic acid: the full name of DNA. Deoxyribo is the form of the sugar. Nucleic because its in the nuclei and acid because the phosphate group.
Thymine (T), cytosine (C): is a nucleotide in DNA single ring structure called pyrimidnes.
Adenine (A) and guanine (g): larger double ring structures called purines.
Uracil: the nitrogenous base of RNA.
DNA
Double Helix: the two polynucleotide strands the form the helix.
Semi conservative model: A replication that half of the parental molecule is maintained in each daughter molecule.
DNA polymerases: enzyme that link DNA nucleotides to growing daughter strands.
DNA ligase: the enzyme that links the pieces together in a single DNA strand.
Flow of DNA and RNA to protein
Transcription: the synthesis of RNA under direction of DNA.
Translation: synthesis of protein under the direction of RNA
Codon: the series of nonoverlaping three base words in DNA and RNA.
RNA polymerase: the enzyme that moves along the gene forming new RNA by following base pairing rules.
Terminator: this is where the end of the gene is topped during RNA polymerase.
Promoter: specific nucleotide that acts as a binding site during RNA polymerase and determines where transcription starts.
Messenger RNA (mRNA): the RNA that encode amino acid sequences.
Intron :non coding regions of genes in plants and animals.
Exon: coding regions in the gene.
RNA splicing: cutting and pasting process.
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
tRNA: used to convert nucleic acids (codons) to amino acids of protein this is the molecular interpreter used.
Anticodon: single stranded loop at the end of a folded molecule this is the triplet base.
Ribosome: the structure in the cytoplasm the make the functioning of mRNA and tRNA catalyze the synthesis of polypeptides.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): The protein pieces that make up the large and small sub units of ribosome.
Start codon: the initiator tRNA base pair with the specific codon.
Stop codon: when the elongation stops and reaches the ribosomes A site.
Mutations affect genes
Mutation: any change of genetic information of cell or virus.
Silent Mutation: When mutation change mRNA but no change in the protein.
missense mutation: when one amino acid changes to another.
Nonsense mutation: changes an amino acid codon into a stop codon.
Frameshift mutation: happens when the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three.
Mutagen: mutations caused by physical or chemical agents.
Genetics of viruses and bacteria
Virus: infectious particle consisting of a little more than genes in a box.
Capsid: the protein coat that's wrapped around a nucleic acid.
Lytic cycle: breaking open of the host cell and release of the new virus.
Lysogenic cycle: viral DNA replication happens without destroying the host cell.
Prophage: this is the DNA that is inserted into the bacterial chromosome.
Emerging viruses
HIV: this is the virus that causes Aids.
AIDS: The virus that stems from HIV.
Retrovirus: RNA virus that reproduces by a DNA molecule.
Reverse transcriptase: when the molecule catalyzes the synthesis of DNA on an RNA template.
Prion: only has a misfolded form of a normal brain protein.
Bacteria transfer DNA
Transformation: the uptake of foreign DNA from the surrounding environment.
Transduction: transfer of bacterial genes by a phage.
Conjugation: union of two bacterial cells of the same or different species with a DNA transfer between them.
F factor: the piece of DNA that allows an e. coli cell to carry out conjugation.
Plasmid: a small circular DNA molecule separate from the bacterial chromosome.
R plasmid: a plasmid that carries a gene that can affect the survival of a cell.
Gene: a discrete unit of information consisting in a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA.
Guanine (g): a double ring nitrogenous base found in DNA and RNA.
Chapter 11
Gene expression
gene regulation: the turning on and off of genes.
Gene expression: process of how genetic info flows from genes to proteins.
Promoter: site where the transcript enzyme, RNA polymerase, attaches and starts transcription.
Operon: the stretch of DNA required for enzyme production.
Operator: between the promoter and the enzyme genes, this is the DNA control sequence.
Repressor: this is the protein that turns off transcription.
Regulatory gene: this codes the repressor.
Activator: proteins that turn operons on by binding to DNA and starting gene transcription.
Chromosome structure
Differentiation: when a cell becomes specialized in structure and function. A cell preforms a distinct role.
Nucleosome: the bead that has DNA wound twice around a protein core of histone molecules.
Epigenetic inheritance: a trait that is inherited by mechanisms not directly involving the nucleotide sequence.
X-chromosome inactivation: when one of two x chromosomes in each cell is inactivated at random.
Barr body: inactive x in each cell of female condenses into this compact object.
Assemblies of proteins
Transcription factors: the proteins that RNA polymerase requires.
Enhancers: binding activators to DNA control sequences.
Alternative RNA splicing: when an organism can produce more than one type of polypeptide from a single gene.
Noncoding RNA
microRNA's: small single stranded RNA.
Small interfering RNAs: similar in size to miRNA , part of the small RNA class.
RNA interference (RNAi): blocking of gene expression by siRNAs.
Cell signaling
Homeotic gene: mater control gene that regulates groups of other genes.
Nucleic acid hybridization: base pairing of one strand of nucleic acid to a complementary sequence on another strand.
DNA microarray: has tiny amounts of a large number of different single stranded fragments.
Cloning
Totipotent: any cell capable of producing every kind of specialized cell in the organism.
Clone: organism pushed through asexual reproduction from a single parent cell.
Regeneration: the regrowth of body parts.
Nuclear transplantation: how animal cloning happens.
Reproductive cloning: when you clone an animal.
Embryonic stem cell: made via natural sexual reproduction or via nuclear transplantation.
Therapeutic cloning: when producing ES cells to treat disease.
Adult stem cells: further along the road to differentiation than ES.
Cancer
Oncogene: a gene that can cause cancer when present in a single copy cell.
Proto-oncogene: normal cellular gene that can become an oncogene.
Tumor suppressor gene: genes in a cell that normal products inhibit cell division.
Carcinogen: agents that change DNA and make cells cancerous.
Histone: small protein molecule important in DNA packing. roughly equal parts of DNA and histone protein.
Chapter 12
Gene editing
biotechnology: manipulation of organisms or their components to make useful products.
DNA technology: modern laboratory techniques for studying and manipulating genetic material.
Recombinant DNA: formed when scientists combine pieces of DNA from two different sources.
Genetic engineering: the direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes.
Plasmids: small, circular DNA molecules that replicate separately from the larger bacterial chromosome.
DNA cloning: the production of identical copies of a target segment of DNA.
Vector: gene carrier.
DNA ligase: joins the two DNA molecules by way of covalent bonds.
Clone: population of genetically identical cells.
Gene cloning: gene carrying segment of DNA.
Enzymes
Restriction enzymes: cutting tools that are bacterial enzymes.
Restriction fragments: this cuts the DNA in precise points within sequence.
Restriction site: Short DNA sequence.
Medicine
Nucleic acid probe: used to find specific gene or other nucleotide sequence within a mass of DNA.
Reverse transcriptase: viral enzyme that can synthesize DNA from an RNA template.
Complementary DNA (cDNA): The DNA from reverse transcriptase procedure.
Vaccine: harmless mutant used to stimulate the immune system to mount defense against that pathogen.
Genetically modified organisms (gmo): organisms that have acquired one or more genes by fake means.
Transgenic organism: when a gene is transplanted from one organism to another. this is what the recombinant is called.
Gene therapy: alteration of a person with a diese for therapy purposes.
Forensics: analyses of scientific data for crime scene investigators.
DNA profiling: analysis of DNA samples to determine if they came from the same person.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): Technique where a specific segment of DNA molecule can be quickly copied in lab.
Primers: short chemically synthesized single stranded DNA molecules with sequences that differ at each end of the target sequence.
Gel electrophoresis: method that separates macromolecules based on size, charge, or physical properties.
DNA profiling
Repetitive DNA: nucleotide sequences that are present that are present in mulptitpe copies in the genome.
Short tandem repeat: DNA used in a short sequence repeated many times.
STR analysis: DNA profiling that compares the lengths of STR sequences at specific sites.
Genomics: study of complete sets of genes.
Whole-genome shotgun method: method that clones and sequences of DNA fragments form randomly cut DNA derived from the entire genome.
Human Genome project: an endeavor to determine the nucleotide sequence of all DNA in the human genome and identify the location and sequence of every gene.
Gene and Medication