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Models of abnormal human functioning, SEXUAL DISORDERS AND GENDER…

- - - - flawed innterconnectivity
      - overreactive
      - abnormal
- - - - instinctual
    - - gratification + reality
- - - - phobias
    - - phobias
      - learned behaviour
    - - reward/punishment
- - - - abnormalities in hormone level
        
        high levels of prolactin
        
        low levels of testosterone
      - long-term physical illness
    - - increase in anxiety, deression, anger
      - negative attitudes, fear, memories
      - OCD
- - - - 6 months, difficulty obtaining and/or maintaining an erection and/or difficulty getting past levels of erectile rigidity
    - - psychological
        
        severe depression
      - spectator role
        
        performance anxiety
    - - tease technique
      - sildenafil (viagra)
- - - - biological
        
        physiological conditions
        
        neurological diseases
        
        menopause
        
        reduction of sensitivity
      - psychological
        
        high levels of sexual inhibition
        
        childhood and relationship traumas
      - sociocultural
        
        societal repression of sexuality
        
        inadequate parenting on menstruation and masturbation
        
        stressful eventss and trauma regarding sexuality
        
        emotional involvement
      - treatments
        
        directed masturbation training
        
        body awareness and education
- - - - 2* gender related feelings and/or behaviours contradict primary or secondary sex characteristics, wish to eliminate sex characteristics, yearning for other gender's sex characteristics, wanting to be seen as a members of another gender
    - - brain activity and structures of a trans person is more similar to the corresponding gender
- - - - defense mechanisms
        
        repression
        
        denial
        
        projection
- - - - dysfunctional beliefs
      - belief of social unattractiveness
      - exposure therapy
      - improving social skills
- - - - dangerous societal/environmental conditions
    - - inadequate exposure -> inadequate defence mechanisms (ego)
      - punishment -> belief that id impulses are dangerous -> anxiety about impulses
      - free association
      - therapist's interpretation
    - - repeated denial of true thoughts and emotions -> anxiety
      - client-centred therapy
    - - maladaptive assumptions
        
        metacognitive theory
        
        irrational beliefs
        
        intolerance of uncertainty
        
        avoidance theory
      - rational-emotive therapy
      - acceptance and commitment therapy
    - - low GABA activity
      - benzodiazepines
      - antidepressants
      - family pedigree studies
        
        how many relatives have the same disorder
- - - - battle between id impulses and ego defences (compulsions)
    - - reinforcement
        
        obsession/compulsion
      - high standards, maladaptive assumptions
      - education
      - exposure and response prevention
    - - hyperactivity of brain circuit
      - antidepressants
- - - - classical conditioning
      - modelling
      - systematic desensitization
      - flooding
    - - predisposition for certain fears
- - - - abnormal norepinephrine activity
      - hyperactive panic circuit
      - antidepressant drugs
    - - misinterpretation of physiological events
      - anxiety sensitivity
      - correcting misinterpretations and applying them
- - - - at odds with the way the nervous system is known to work
      - symptoms differ from the corresponding medical problem
      - not factitious disorder, as the individual doesn't want the symptoms
- - - - emotional conflicts turned physical
      - primary gain
        
        bodily symptoms keep internal conflicts out of awareness
      - secondary gain
        
        help avoid real life pain
    - - operant conditioning
        
        physical symptoms remove individual from an unpleasant situation
        
        physical symptoms garner necessary attention from others
        
        rewarding
      - communication
        
        emotions -> ''physical language''
    - - western way of seeing somatic symptoms as inferior way of dealing with emotions
- - - - individual truly believes they have an illness
- - - - excessive firing of neurons that use dopamine
      - phenothiazines
      - second-generation antipsychotic drugs
        
        dopamine and serotonin
  - - - no reinforcement for bringing attention to proper cues
        
        paying attention to irrelevant cues
  - - - biased diagnosis
    - - self-fulfilling prophecy
- - - - focus on cognitive impairments
      - hallucination reinterpretation and acceptance
- - - - persecution (victimization)
      - reference (own intepretations)
      - Grandeur
      - control
    - - inability to think logically
      - derailment
      - neologisms
      - perseveration
    - - inappropriate affect
- - - - social isolation
      - serious illness
      - abusive or repressive environment
      - occupational stress
- - - - altruistic
        
        integrated individual
      - anomic
        
        individual let down by society
      - egoistic
        
        non-conforming individual
  - - - aggressiveness and vulnerability to suicide
- - - - drug therapy
      - psychotherapy
      - cognitive-behavioural therapy
        
        mindfulness
        
        building tolerance
  - - - assess suicidal potential
        
        assess resources
- - - - ego deficiences
    - - child grows up unaware of their internal needs
        
        focus of external guides
  - - - judging self-worth based on appearance
    - - exposure therapy for bulimia nervosa
  - - - western standards
      - prejudice
    - - enmeshed family pattern
      - therapy through changing family interactions
- - - - lacking judgement
      - speech less careful and coherent
      - weaker memory
      - higher emotionality
      - motor difficulties
    - - tolerance and withdrawal symptoms
        
        delirium tremens (DTs)
        
        dramatic withdrawal symptoms
        
        visual hallucinations
        
        seizures
      - fetal alcohol syndrome
        
        disability
        
        head and face deformities
        
        heart defects
        
        slow growth
  - - - calming effect
    - - sleep inducers
    - - increase GABA's activity
      - benzodiazepines
        
        less chance of intoxication, tolerance and withdrawal effects
        
        less drowsiness
  - - - repeated heroin usage
      - tolerance and withdrawal reactions
        
        severe twitching aches
        
        vomiting
        
        loss of appetite
        
        weight loss
        
        high blood pressure
- - - - stressful socioeconomic conditions
      - self-help
      - residential treatment programs
    - - ineffective parenting
        
        unsatisfied needs
        
        drug dependency
    - - operant conditioning
      - aversion therapy
      - contingency management
      - relapse prevention
    - - genetic disposition
      - decrease in production of neurotransmitters
        
        tolerance and withdrawal symptoms
      - brain's reward circuit
      - detoxification
      - antagonist drugs
        
        blocks effect of an addictive drug
    - - genetic predispositions
        
        less than optimal reward circuit
        
        problematic temperament
- - - - poor muscle coordination
      - poor judgement
      - anger, aggression, anxiety
      - hallucinations and delusions
- - - - sharpened perceptions
      - intensified surroundings
    - - interfere with performance or cognitive functioning
  - - - severe CNS depression
        
        coma
    - - stimulants interfere with liver's natural levels of barbituates and alcohol
- - - - repeatedly lying
      - impulsive, irritable, aggresive
      - recklessness
        
        little regard for safety of themselves and others
      - self-centred
      - lack of moral conscience
        
        using others for their own profit
    - - psychodynamic
        
        absence of parental love
        
        major stress during infancy
        
        lack of basic trust
        
        emotionally distance
        
        power and destructiveness
      - cognitive-behavioural
        
        modeling and imitation
        
        operant conditioning
      - biological
        
        low serotonin activity
        
        physical under-arousal
        
        tuning out threatening or emotional situations
  - - - psychodynamic
        
        lack of acceptance
        
        loss of self-esteem
        
        dependency
      - biological
        
        predisposition
        
        low serotonin activity
        
        depression, impulsivity, aggression
        
        abnormal functioning of brain structures
      - sociocultural
        
        rapidly changing societies
        
        instability
        
        little sense of belonging
      - biosocial
      - treatments
        
        psychotherapy
  - - - psychodynamic
        
        cold and controlling parents
        
        fear of loss
      - cognitive-behavioural
        
        loss of interest in the world
        
        self-focused and emotional
      - sociocultural
        
        cultural norms and expectations
        
        exaggerated feminity
  - - - psychodynamic
        
        cold rejecting parents
        
        denying feelings of worthlessness by praising oneself
      - cognitive-behavioural
        
        too much positive reinforcement
        
        sense of superiority and grandiosity
      - sociocultural
        
        family values and social ideals in certain societies
- - - - negative affectivity
      - detachment
      - antagonism
      - disinhibition
      - psychoticism
- - - - psychodynamic
        
        demanding parents
        
        hostile environment
        
        mistrust of others
      - cognitive-behavioural
        
        maladaptive assumptions
        
        anxiety-reducction techniques
        
        improving interpersonal problem-solving
  - - - genuine preference for being alone
    - - object relations theorists
        
        ineffective parenting
        
        inability to give or receive love
        
        avoidance of relationships
      - cognitive-behavioural
        
        experience more positive emotions
        
        informing on different emotions
        
        teaching social skills
  - - - intense loneliness
      - ideas of reference belief that unrelated events are important to them
      - bodily illusions
    - - reconnecting
        
        positive social contacts
        
        easing loneliness
      - cognitive-behavioural
        
        objectively evaluating thoughts
        
        ignoring inappropriate thoughts
        
        improving social skills and ''blending in'' with people
- - - - psychodynamic
        
        ineffective parenting
        
        child develops negative self-image
      - cognitive-behavioural
        
        harsh criticism and rejection during childhood
        
        always judging situations negatively
  - - - psychodynamic
        
        lifelong need for nurturance
        
        transference of dependency
      - cognitive-behavioural
        
        parents reward clingy behaviour and punish independent behaviour
        
        assertiveness training
  - - - neglecting leisure activities and friendships
      - perfectionistic
      - rigid and stubborn
    - - psychodynamic
        
        help recognize underlying feelings and insecurities
        
        overly harsh toilet training
        
        pent up anger
        
        strict order to keep under control
- - - - brain-body stress pathways become overly reactive
        
        dysfunction in stress circuit
      - inherited predisposition
      - antidepressant drugs
    - - predispositions acquired during childhood
        
        risk of PTSD
- - - - loss of memories within a specific time period
    - - some more disturbing events aren't remembered
    - - loss of memories before stressful event
    - - forgetting continues in the present
  - - - mutually amnesic
      - mutually cognizant
      - one-way amnesic
    - - recognition
        
        recovering memories
        
        integrating subpersonalities
  - - - repression
        
        painful memories, thoughts, impulses, don't reach awareness
        
        assigned to other personalities
    - - state-dependent learning
    - - self-hypnosis
- - - - cognitive-behavioural
        
        most successful
        
        parallels adult anxiety
      - play therapy
- - - - repeated violation of others' rights/ignoring rules of society beyond the norm for their age
      - 1 year, 3* frequent bullying/threatening, frequent provoking fights, dangerous weapon-use, physical cruelty, stealing, non-consenting sexual activity, fire-setting, vandalism, frequent lying
    - - overt-non destructive
      - covert-destructive
      - overt-destructive
      - covert non destructive
      - relational aggression
    - - genetic and biological factors
      - ineffective parenting
      - maltreatment
      - family therapy
        
        lessen operant conditioning
        
        parent-child interaction
- - - - 6 months, ^* unable to attent to details, frequent careless errors, hard to maintain attention, fail to listen when spoken to carry out task, disorganized, disliking mentally effortful work, losing important items, easily distracted, forgetting everyday activities
      - 6 months, 6* fidgeting/tapping/squirming, inappropriate wandering frm seat, inappropriate runs/climbs, unable to play quietly, constant motion, excessive talking, interrupting others
      - under the age of 12
      - impaired functioning
      - symptoms shown in more than one setting
    - - biological
        
        type 1 attention processes take over type 2 attention processes
        
        drug therapy
        
        cognitive-behavioural
        
        operant conditioning
  - - - psychological
        
        central cognitive disturbances
        
        communication is difficult
        
        no theory of mind
        
        deficiencies in joint attention
      - biological
        
        genetic factors
        
        prenatal difficulties
        
        cerebellum abnormalities
        
        attention-shifting
    - - parent training
      - helping to adapt better to the environment
        
        appropriate behaviour
        
        communication training
        
        community integration
  - - - deficient intellectual functioning, as reflected by clinical assessment and intelligence tests
      - deficient adaptive functioning in communicationn/social involvement/personal independence in certain settings
      - deficiency begins during the developmental phase
- - - - 2 years, symptoms of major/mild depression
      - symptoms not absent for more than 2
      - no history of mania/hypomania
  - - - anhedonia
  - - - DSM-5
        
        2 weeks, increased depressed mood, decrease in enjoyment
        
        2 weeks, 3/4* weight change/appetite change, decrease in motor activity, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness/guilt, less concentration, focus on suicide
  - - - predisposition
      - biochemical factors
        
        low activity of norepinephrine and serotonin
        
        HPA pathway
      - depression-related brain circuit
        
        abnormally high/low blood levels
        
        undersized hippocampus
        
        dysfunction of anterior cingulate cortex
      - TREATMENTS
        
        antidepressant drugs
        
        MAO inhibitors
        
        tricyclics
        
        SSRIs
        
        brain stimulation
        
        ECT
        
        vagus nerve stimulation
        
        TMS
        
        DBS
    - - introjection
      - free association
    - - fewer positive rewards
        
        behavioural activation
      - negative thinking
        
        maladaptive attitudes
        
        cognitive triad
        
        errors in thinking
        
        automatic thoughts
      - learned helplessness
        
        attribution-helplessness theory
    - - family-social
        
        unavailable support
        
        interpersonal psychotherapy
      - multi-cultural
        
        women more prone to depression
        
        hormone explanation
        
        body dissatisfaction
        
        artefact theory
        
        lack-of-control
        
        rumination
- - - - behavioural
      - cognitive
      - motivational
      - physical
      - emotional
    - - 1 week, continually abnormal, inflated, irritable mood along with heightened energy/activity
      - 3* grandiosity, over-blown self-esteem, reduced sleep-need, increased talkativeness, shifting through thoughts quickly, agitated movements, pursuit of problematic activities
  - - - history of a manic episode
      - major depressive episodes precede or follow the manic episode
  - - - presence/history of major depressive episode(s)
      - presence/history of hypomanic episode(s)
      - no history of a manic episode
  - - - excessive/stubbornly firing of ions
        
        mania/depression
      - lithium and mood stabilizers