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Chapter 12, CHAPTER 7: ABORIGINAL ECOMOMIES, : - Coggle Diagram
Chapter 12
The Mi'kmaq Nation
The basic political unit in Mi'kmaw society was the extended family, which consisted of 30 to 200 people led by a chief, or sagamore.
At the heard of Mi'kmaw political culture wee two fundamental prniciples: one was respect for the rights of the people, and the other was respect for, and the preservation of, the environment.text
The Mi'kmaq Nation had a well-established system of self-government that was based on democratic princples.
Mi'kmaw communitis placed consirable importance on the opinions of Elders, both male and female.
Once an agreement was reached, both parties were expected to abide by it.
Contact and trade with Europeans eventually led, by the end of the eighteenth century, to an expanded Mi'kmaw political structure.
Mi'kmaw territory was divided into seven geographic districts.
Each district had its own government in the form of an elected District Chief who presided over a Council of Chiefs made up of Elders and other distinguished members of the community.
The Distinct Councils had many of the powers we associate with a central government today, such as the power to grant hunting and fishing territories, to settle disputes, and to make war or peace.
Mi'kma'ki: Seven Districts of the Mi'kmaq
The Mi'kmaq Nation also had a council called the Grand Council, consisting of the seven District Chiefs
One of the seven members was selected to be the Grand Chief.Since all chiefs were elected, the Grand Council generally was made up of individuals who were respected in their communities.
The Mi'kmaq Grand Council has survived through the ages. Its role today is to provide spiritual leadership.
The Iroquois Confederacy
This confederacy traced back to 1142 CE, originally consisted of Five First Nations living south of Lake Ontario who had banded together: the Mohawk, the Oneida, the Onondaga, the Cayuga, and the Seneca.
They were joined in 1722 by the Tuscaroras, who migrated north after being displaced from their southern territory. Then the Confederacy then became known as the Six Nations.
The Confederacy was founded by a leader named Dekanahwideh.
Dekanahwideh travelled the region urging the Nations to join together under the Great Law of Peace. The motto of the Five Nations was "one heart, one mind, one law"
The people of the Iroquois Confederacy, known today as the audaciousness, were accomplished farmers.
They developed a complex system of power to govern began with the individual and flowed outward through the family, the clan, the village, and the nation, to the confederacy
The symbol of the Confederacy was the longhouse that wasa the traditional home of the Haudenosaunee. Within a longhouse, each of the original Five Nations had its traditional seating place: the Mohawk guarding the east door, the Seneca guarding the west door, the Onondaga tending the hearth and fire, the Cayuga sitting to the south of the fire, and the Oneida sitting to the north.
A distinctive characteristic of Haudenosaunee culture was that is was matrilineal
Although men became the chiefs, they were selected by the oldest woman in the clan, called the Clan Mother, who also held the balance of power and had the authority to remove a chief from power and appoint a new chief.
For the Haudenosaunee, all the clan chiefs in a village made up what was called the Village Coucil.
The Great Law of Peace and the American constitution
The great law of Peace was the nwritten constitution of the Iroquois Confederacy,passed down orally from generation to generation.
Aboriginal Perspectives on Government
Aboriginal peoples who had traditionally occupied the land had well-established and long-standing governments in place that were as complex as any found in Europe.
Some societies were egalitarian and democratic at a time when most nations of Europe were still divided by rigid social class and ruled by absolute monarchs.
Even though government structures in each Aboriginal society varied, tbey were all grounded in a common world view based on a spiritually that involved living in harmony with the environment.
They also valued and respected the rights of the individual, each of whom had a role to play in the decision-making process and in the selection of rulers and Councillors.
The Concept of Property Ownership
Aboriginal peoples did not consider the land to be something they owned as individuals or as societies.
The concept of propert y ownership was firmly embedded in European law. Land was owned in the same way that other property, such as books, guns, and clothing, was owned.
As Europeans expanded their territories, Aboriginal nations began to claim title to the lands they traditionally occupied.
By the eighteenth century, colonial and European leaders realized that to ensure the safety and security of their settlements, they had to reach agreements with local First Nations.
Aboriginal Treaties
Early treaties between the Dominion of Canada and First Nations relocated Aboriginal peoples form their traditional territories to small, isolated plots of land called reserves.
The two cultures had a fundamental difference in perceptions about the treaties, however.
To the government, the treaties were a bill of sale - the land now belonged to Canada and the issue of land claims was closed.
Treaties of the Mi'kmaq Nation
Between 1725 and 1763, the Mi'kmaq Nation signed a series of treaties with Britain.
In 1763, the British government proclaimed that no European settlement would be allowed west of the Appalachian Mountains and that other unsettled lands would be reserved for the Mi'kmaq.
In 1783, the Mi'kmaw chief John Julian was granted a licence to occupt 8100 hectares along the iramichi River.
In 1999, the Court ruled that the earlier treaties were still legally binding and that the Mi'kmaq had the right to catch enough fish to earn a "moderate livelihood"
The right to self-government
Starting with the Indian Act of 1876, decisions affecting Aboriginal peoples in Canada were made by the federal government.
The issue of sef-government is a contoversial one. Some people argue that everyone should be goerned by the same laws,without exception.
The Nisga's Agreement
Nisga's never signed any treaties with the British, or later the Canadian government in which they ceded territory in return for certain rights and guarantees.
Over a period of 100 years, their lands had been expropriated because of the rich forestry and mineral resources they contained.
The condition placed upon them was that these programs had to be administered under the terms of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the Canadian Criminal code
CHAPTER 7: ABORIGINAL ECOMOMIES
ABORIGINAL TECHNOLOGIES
They had advanced knowledge of plant science. They created crops such as potatoes, corn, tomatoes, peppers, and squash increasing the supply of nutritional foods, thereby enabling worlds population to increase dramatically.
First Nations developed sophisticated stone tool technologies and methods of transportation that were ideally suited to their environments.
The development of these various technologies reflected the social, economic, and cultural diversity of Aboriginal societies.
FARMING TECHNOLOGIES
Among their many innovations, Aboriginal peoples provided Europeans with many new crops through trade, developed sustainable farming techniques, and demonstrated advanced food processing technology.
Grinding and drying methods were used to enable the foods to be preserved for long periods of time without compromising these foods' nutritional value.
Aboriginal resource management viewed plants and animals as shared resources which, through ecological sustainability and biodiversity, would provide long-term economic benefits to the group.
Unlike Aboriginals, European agriculture was more of an individualistic system that aimed to control nature through monoculture.
Aboriginal peoples concentrated on plant science. One of the most significant examples was corn, Aboriginal peoples across the Americas developed hundreds of varieties of corns.
THE FIRST FARMERS
The Haudenosaunee (who were called "Iroquois" by the Europeans) lived in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands; the fertile soil and relatively long growing season of this area enabled them to establish an agricultural lifestyle.
The planting and harvesting of multiple varieties of three crops-corn, squash, and beans– gave the Lowlands peoples the distinction of being the first farmers in Canada.
The Haudenosaunee developed a unique method of growing their crops. Corn and beans were planted in the same mound so that the corn stalks supported the climbing beans, while the squash was planted in between the mounds so that their broad leaves would discourage weeds.
Because these crops were so closely linked, the people called them "the Three Sisters."
Women were responsible for tending and harvesting the crops.
In September, the crops were harvested using hoes made from moose antlers or the shoulder blades of deer. The beans and corn were stored in large chests made of bark, while the squash was preserved in containers lined with bark and then buried underground.
In their role as the principal caretakers of crops, women had an elevated status within Haudenosaunee communities.
MEDICAL TECHNOLOGIES
At the time of contact, Aboriginal medicines were used to heal both body and mind.
The cure for scurvy that saved Jacques Cartier's men from death in Québec in 1536 is just one example of traditional Aboriginal medical knowledge.
The Wendat (who were called "Huron" by the Europeans) showed Cartier how to prepare a drink, made from cedar bark and needles, which was rich in vitamin C.
Although plants that had the capacity to cure scurvy and other diseases were found in Europe, Europeans had limited knowledge of plant science.
In 1795, James Lind, a Scottish naval officer, his research led to the discovery of vitamins and to a greater understanding of the importance of good nutrition for maintaining health.
Medicinal plants used by Aboriginal peoples in South America made a significant contribution to health in the western world.
Peruvian bark was used to develop chloroquine; this medicine was the first cure for malaria, an illness that had killed millions.
Other plants were used to produce such medicines as ipecac, which cured dysentery, and curare, which was actually a poison that,
In North America, Aboriginal peoples used willow and poplar bark to relieve general aches and pains.
TRANSPORTATION TECHNOLOGIES
Aboriginal transportation technologies were well adapted to the rigours of the Canadian climate and physical geography.
The canoe was an ideal craft for travelling in the North American wilderness.
During the fur trade, the canoe opened up the interiors to European economies.
It remained an important method of transportation both for people and for their trade goods until the advent of the railway.
A MATTER OF GEOGRAPHY
The natural environment shaped the economies of First Peoples, such as landscape and climate worked together to determine traditional territories, hunting practices, transportation options, and trading routes.
The environment also created the need and opportunity for the development of many technological innovations.
GATHERING
Most Aboriginal groups gathered edible wild forest products, such as fruits, nuts, berries, roots, leafy vegetables, herbs, wild rice, and tree sap.
Some berries, such as strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries, were laid out in the sun to dry on bark trays. They were then stored in baskets and watertight containers to be used in bread baking during the winter.
Nuts were eaten as food or crushed for oil, and sap from maple trees was boiled into syrup sugar to use as a sweetener in foods.
Aboriginal peoples gathered plants for spiritual and ceremonial uses as well. Sweetgrass was important to use as ceremonial. Bundled and dried, sweetgrass created soothing aromas to enhance sessions and spiritual ceremonies.
Tools were developed to cut wood, bark, and vegetation and to grind fruits and nuts.
Grinding enabled people to obtain more seeds, which they then planted the following year for harvesting.
WEALTH AND SOCIAL STANDING
The Aboriginal peoples' world view also encompassed their attitude toward property and wealth and its relationship to social standing.
Wealth was measured by non-material values such as spiritual powers and good relationships.
Material possessions were appreciated but were valued for the fame associated with the sharing of goods during ceremonies and rituals.
Generosity on such occasions contributed to a person's standing in the community.
Exchanging gifts when visiting people and when celebrating events such as marriages and the giving of names was also customary.
Gifts were particularly important in reaching agreements and forging alliances with other First Nations.
Since the act of gift-giving was considered prestigious in many Aboriginal cultures, an offer of goods enhanced the status both of individuals and of entire communities.
THE POTLATCH
In Pacific coast societies, the sharing of wealth was evident in a significant custom known as the potlatch.
This was a celebratory feast in which the host family shared its wealth with other members of the community.
Gifts of all kinds were bestowed, including food, artwork, and even enslaved people.
By demonstrating that property was shared among the members of the community, the potlatch was a means of dealing with economic inequalities within a village; it was also a way in which the host family established its influence and prestige.
DIFFERING VIEWS
By the time of the first contact, the Aboriginal peoples of Canada had developed sophisticated societies in response to the challenges of their ecosystems.
All of these societies were based on the interrelationship among available resources, appropriate technologies, trade interdependencies, and spiritual and ecological world views.
For centuries, Aboriginal peoples had acted upon their world view, in which the land was shared and used responsibly and collectively for the long-term benefit of all living things.
When Europeans came to North America, they brought them a very different concept of the land.
TRADE ECONOMIES
The variety of resources found in the northern climate and ecosystems of North America gave Aboriginal peoples the opportunity to become great traders.
Part of their motivation for trade was the need for goods found in other regions; it was also based, however, on establishing and maintaining friendly relations with neighbouring peoples.
The exchange of gifts cemented alliances, and acts of generosity toward others brought prestige to the provider.
Among trade items, the mineral obsidian was probably the most highly prized because of its role in the creation of stone tools such as weapons and cutting blades.
The most frequently traded items for which there is archaeological evidence were arrowheads, tools, and shells.
Aboriginal peoples exchanged shell beads known as wampum. Wampum was threaded on a string or woven into belts; the patterns symbolized events or alliances and were used to mark special occasions.
It is likely that Aboriginal peoples traded perishable foodstuffs and wooden items as well.
In the fur trade, wampum became an important trading product.
WORLD VIEW AND ECONOMIC STRUCTURES
The oral histories of Aboriginal peoples reveal a world view, or spiritual philosophy, that reflects a close relationship between their economies and the natural world.
Aboriginal peoples believed that nature was a continuous web in which humans were equal, but not superior, to the land, plants, animals, and water. So they took from the environment only what they needed in order to survive.
Their complex knowledge of the properties of natural materials enabled them to use their resources efficiently and with little waste.
THE BUFFALO HUNTERS
The Plains people lived a hunting way of life that followed the migrations of the buffalo, or American bison.
Groups of between 50 and 100 Plains hunters pursued these huge and formidable beasts, which travelled in herds of thousands in search of grazing lands.
For the Plains people, transportation was a challenge, especially during the winter.
They used snowshoes and sleds to travel over deep snow, which was pulled by dogs or wolves.
The vast open spaces led the Plains people to find a way to move quickly and easily in the summer months.
These people developed a device called the travois to transport their children and personal belongings. Originally travois was pulled by dogs or wolves; later they were pulled by horses.
The Plains people developed unique methods of hunting. They created buffalo pounds, which were large corrals made of brush and hides, into which the animals were herded.
They also identified buffalo jumps-steep cliffs over which the herds were driven.
The horse, which had first been introduced on the continent by the Spaniards in Mexico, arrived on the plains in the 1700s.
Horses improved transportation on the plains by allowing people to travel long distances.
Horses could also pull larger travois, which enabled the people to carry more supplies.
Horses also made the hunt itself easier, as hunters could now ride alongside the stampeding buffalo.
The ability to travel farther also increased the Plains peoples' contact with other First Nations.
At times, this contact led to increased trade-and at other times, to territorial conflicts and war.
LONGHOUSE COMMUNITIES
An agricultural lifestyle tied the Haudenosaunee people to specific geographical areas within the Lowlands. These ties led to the development of permanent villages, which were unique in the east at that time.
The Haudenosaunee built huge palisades around their villages to protect themselves from their enemies.
The bark on the roof could be shifted to adjust the location of smoke holes to suit changing temperatures and bound together with branches and bark. into weather conditions.
Inside the village, the people lived in longhouses. The inverted U-frames of these large structures were made from evergreens and then covered with bark from elm or cedar trees.
Women created pottery and baskets out of matted reeds, bark, and corn husks and made clothing from animal skins and furs.
Men produced stone and tools and carved bowls, utensils, and warrior clubs out of weapons wood.
THE NORTHERN TRAVELLERS
The migration of the northern Thule peoples followed a seasonal pattern. They spent their summers on the coast, fishing and hunting such sea mammals.
For transportation, they used animal skins over wood or bone frames to create kayaks.
The Thule built the umiak for whale-hunting parties and for the transportation of families and goods to seasonal hunting grounds.
In winter, the Thule economy shifted to the caribou hunt using sleds.
ARCTIC INNOVATIONS
The Thule created diverse weapons and needles, range of tools.
Spears, arrows, and knives were made from stone, copper, bones, and antlers.
They used caribou and sealskin to produce whips and drum covers. To protect people's eyesight from the blinding effect of the sun as it illuminated vast stretches of snow, the Thule designed narrow eyewear known as snow goggles.
Most Thule clothing was made of caribou, sealskins, or furs.
The Thule embroidered their clothing with beads made from horns, soapstone, goose quills.
They used red and ochre and black graphite as dyes to make decorative clothing patterns.
The Thule would build a series of igloos connected by that could house up to 20 people.
They built summer homes passageways using whalebone and wood for the frame, sod for the walls, and whale skin for the roof.
Despite the challenges of their climate and landscape, the Thule created economic practices that enabled them to live successfully in their environment for thousands of years.
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