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Grand Theories - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Psychosexual
        
        Oral stage
        
        Infancy (Birth to 1 year)
        
        Mouth
        
        Sucking and feeding
        
        Phallic stage
        
        Preschool years (3-6 years)
        
        Penis
        
        Genital simulation
        
        Anal stage
        
        Early childhood (1 to 3 years)
        
        Anus
        
        Toilet training
        
        Genital stage
        
        Adolescence
        
        Genitals
        
        Sexual simulation and heterosexual relationships
        
        Latency
        
        6 to 11 years
        
        Quiet stage
        
        Sports, schoolwork, and friendships
        
        Adulthood
        
        To love and work
    - - Psychosocial
        
        Trust vs mistrust
        
        Birth to 1 year
        
        Babies either trust that others will satisfy their basic needs or develop mistrust about the care of others
        
        Autonomy vs shame and doubt
        
        1 to 3 years
        
        Children either become self-sufficient in many activities or doubt their own abilities
        
        Initiative vs guilt
        
        3 to 6 years
        
        Children either try to undertake many adult like activities or internalize the limits and prohibitions set by parents. They feel either adventurous or guilty
        
        Industry vs inferiority
        
        6 to 11 years
        
        Children busily practice and then master new skills or feel inferior, unable to do anything well
        
        Identity vs role confusion
        
        Adolescence
        
        Adolescents ask themselves “Who am I?” They establish sexual, political, religious, and vocational identities or are confused about their roles.
        
        Intimacy vs isolation
        
        Adulthood
        
        Young adults seek companionship and love or become isolated from others, fearing rejection
        
        Generativity vs stagnation
        
        Adulthood
        
        Middle-aged adults contribute to future generations through work, creative activities, and parenthood or they stagnate
        
        Integrity vs despair
        
        Adulthood
        
        Older adults try to make sense of their lives, either seeing life as a meaningful whole or despairing at goals never reached
- - - - Ivan Pavlov
        
        Classical conditioning
        
        Respondent conditioning
        
        The learning process in which a meaningful stimulus (such as the smell of food to a hungry animal) is connected with a neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a tone) that had no special meaning before conditioning
        
        The dog associated the tone (the neutral stimulus) with food (the meaningful stimulus) and eventually responded to the tone as if it were the food itself
        
        The conditioned response to the tone, no longer neutral but now a conditioned stimulus, was evidence that learning had occurred
        
        Infants learn to smile at their parents because they associate them with food and play
        
        Toddlers become afraid of busy streets if the noise of traffic repeatedly frightens them
        
        Students enjoy—or fear—school, depending on what happened in kindergarten
      - John B Watson
        
        If psychologists focus on behavior, they will realize that everything can be learned
        
        Newborns need to learn to suck on a nipple
        
        Infants learn to smile at a caregiver
        
        Preschoolers learn to hold hands when crossing the street
        
        Adults learn to budget time and money
      - B F Skinner
        
        Operant conditioning
        
        Instrumental conditioning
        
        The learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired (which makes the person or animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted (which makes the action less likely to be repeated)
        
        Reinforcement
        
        Consequences that increase the frequency or strength of a particular action are called reinforcers
        
        When a behavior is followed by something desired, such as food for a hungry animal or a welcoming smile for a lonely person
        
        2 more items...
      - Albert Bandura
        
        Social learning theory
        
        Observational learning
        
        An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person’s behavior. Even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people
        
        Modeling
        
        The central process of social learning, by which a person observes the actions of others and then copies them
- - - - Stages of development
        
        Sensorimotor
        
        Birth to 2 years
        
        Infants use senses and motor abilities to understand the world. Learning is active, without reflection.
        
        Infants learn that objects still exist when out of sight and begin to think through mental actions
        
        Object permanence
        
        Preoperational
        
        2 to 6 years
        
        Children think symbolically, with language, yet children are egocentric, perceiving from their own perspective
        
        Imagination flourishes and language becomes a significant means of self expression and social influence
        
        Concrete operational
        
        6 to 11 years
        
        Children understand and apply logic. Thinking is limited by direct experience
        
        By applying logic, children grasp concepts of conservation, number, classification, and many other scientific ideas
        
        Formal operational
        
        12 years through adulthood
        
        Adolescents and adults use abstract and hypothetical concepts. They can use analysis, not only emotion
        
        Ethics, politics, and social and moral issues become fascinating as adolescents and adults use abstract, theoretical reasoning
      - Cognitive equilibrium
        
        A state of mental balance in which people are not confused because they can use their existing thought processes to understand current experiences and ideas
        
        Assimulation
        
        The reinterpretation of new experiences to fit into old ideas
        
        Accomodation
        
        The restructuring of old ideas to include new experiences
    - - A perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output
        
        EEG (electroencephalogram)
        
        Measures electrical activity in the cortex
        
        Can differentiate active brains (beta brain waves—very rapid, 12 to 30 per second) from sleeping brains (delta waves—1 to 3 per second) and brain states that are half-awake, or dreaming. Complete lack of brain waves, called flat-line, indicates brain death.
        
        ERP (event-related potential)
        
        Indicates how quickly and extensively people react—although this method requires many repetitions to distinguish the response from the usual brain activity
        
        MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
        
        The water molecules in various parts of the brain each have a magnetic current, and measuring that current allows measurement of myelin, neurons, and fluid in the brain
        
        fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)
        
        Function is measured as more oxygen is added to the blood flow when specific neurons are activated. The presumption is that increased blood flow means that the person is using that part of the brain
        
        Several parts of the brain are active at once—seeing something activates parts of the visual cortex, but it also may activate other parts of the brain far from the visual areas.
        
        PET (positron emission tomography)
        
        Can reveal
        the volume of neurotransmitters; the rise or fall of brain oxygen, glucose, amino acids; and more
        
        Almost impossible to use with children (who cannot stay still) and is very expensive with adults
        
        DTI (diffusion tensor imaging)
        
        Measures changes in blood flow and how each area of the brain absorbs light, neuroscientists infer activity of the brain
        
        Depends on light rather than magnetic charge and can be done with children
        
        fNIRS (functional near infrared spectroscopy
        
        Measures the flow (diffusion) of water molecules within the brain, which shows connections between one area and another
- - - - Each person, schooled or not, develops with the guidance of more skilled members of his or her society
        
        Apprenticeship in thinking
        
        How cognition is stimulated and developed in people by more skilled members of society
        
        Guided participation
        
        People learn from others who guide their experiences and explorations
      - Zone of proximal development
        
        A metaphorical area, or “zone,” surrounding a learner that includes all of the skills, knowledge, and concepts that the person is close (“proximal”) to acquiring but cannot yet master without help
        
        What the learner already knows
        
        Don't reteach, too boring
        
        What the learner could understand with guidance
        
        Do teach, exciting, challenging
        
        What the learner is not yet ready or able to learn
        
        Don't teach, too difficult
- - - - Made observations regarding the evolution of plants, insects, and birds over billions of years
    - - Human fears have evolved from ancient times when snakes were common killers, which is why people are terrified of snakes
    - - Pregnant woman’s nausea
      - 1-year-olds’ attachment to their parents
      - The obesity epidemic
      - The diseases of late adulthood
    - - Survival
      - Reproduction
    - - The process by which living creatures (including people) adjust to their environment. Genes that enhance survival and reproductive ability are selected, over the generations, to become more prevalent