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ENGLISH GRAMMAR, at/on/in/by, VERBALS - Coggle Diagram
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
NOUN
irregular
foreign
plural
crisis ->
crises
cactus ->
cacti
criterion ->
criteria
index ->
indices
alumnus/alumna ->
alumni/alumnae
base
singular = plural
some fish (cod ->
cod
, etc.)
aircraft ->
aircraft
VERB
TENSE
can either refer to
past
"-ed"
present
third person
agreement "-s"
future
"will"
MAIN/AUXILIARY
auxiliary
aka "helper"
is, had, has been, had been
MODAL
express
likelihood, ability, need
to ask for permission
they are
may, might, must, can, could, shall, should, will and would
"The sun
should
come out by noon."
"
Can
I go to the park?"
main
comes after ("He
is
running
.")
IRREGULAR
the ones which you are used to...
ASPECTS
simple
can't infer if
ongoing
complete
:warning: auxiliary?
only future "will"
I ran, I run, I will run
progressive/continous
get to infer
the now
:warning: auxiliary?
"
to be
" + "
-ing
"
"They
are performing
."
perfect
get to infer if
completed
:warning: auxiliary?
"
had
", "
has
", "
have
"
"She
had
exhausted
all her options."
progressive perfect
get to infer
started on past + ongoing
auxiliary? :warning:
"
have
", "
has
", "
had
" + "
been
" + "-
ing
"
"She
had been
excusing
herself from the table."
PRONOUN
personal
possessive
express
belonging
they are
your, yours, my, mine, his, her, hers, their, theirs, our, ours
reflexive
express
same subject and object
they are
myself, yourself, itself, herself, himself, themselves, ourselves, oneself, oneselves
relative
express
used as a link to connect phrases
they are
for people
who, whom, whose, that
things
that, which
indefinite
they are
dual case
both, either, neither
any, anyone, everyone, both, neither, either, more, one, nothing, anything, others, several
emphatic
they only add
emphasis
"Let's throw a surprise party for
herself
!"
"I saw it
myself
."
MODIFIERS
ADJECTIVES
characterize
people, places, things, ideas
nouns
follows an order
determiner>opinion>size>age>shape
,>color>origin>material>purpose
same category?
coordinated by comma
ARTICLE
can either
definite
the
indefinite
a
an
ADVERB
refer to
verbs and adjectives (usually)
"-
ly
"
relative
connect
clauses or parts of sentence
"I learned
when
I was on vocation."
when, where, why
intensifiers
really, very
degree
too, incredibly, somewhat, barely
SUPERLATIVE/COMPARTIVE
comparative
adjectives and adverbs
"-
er
"
superlative
adjectives and adverbs
"-
est
"
PREPOSITION
some of them
on, off, to, of, in, out, at, after, before, under, over, by, with
in, after, before, on, off, under, over, outside, inside, in, out, down, up, through, at, since, until, by
from, for, by, with, down, up, out, past
compound
about, under, outside, inside, without, before, after, onto, into, beside, upon, beyond, against, among, below, until, across, between, notwithstanding
function to describe
where (space)
when (time)
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
:warning:
noun
adjective
"I enjoy exploring the Cathedral
of
Glass."
adverb
"She punched
with
the strenght
of
a giant."
CONJUNCTION
CORRELATIVE
usually come in pairs
either... or, neither... nor, both... and, although... nevertheless, although... yet, as... as, as... so, if... then, just as... so (also), not only... but also, nothwithstanding... yet, since... therefore, so... that, where... then, where... there, whether... or
will function semantically
COORDINATING
connects parts the sentence
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
function (
addiction, exception, etc.
)
SUBORDINATING
conect independent clauses to dependent ones
after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, if only, rather than, since, that, though, unless, until, when, where, whereas, wherever, wheter, which, while
PUNTUACTION
COMMA
separate lists
"She is a fan of planes, trains(,) and automobiles.
set off words
"Basically(,) everything is great."
"Exhausted(,) the bastkeball team went home."
coordinate or same type adjectives
adressing, dates and times
"June 6th, 2020."
separate
dialogue with quotation
"He asked(,) "Is it true?"
directly adress
"Rishi(,) can you hand me that?"
yes/no
"Yes(,) I did it."
question follow up
I told you, didn't I?
apositive
in between
"Michal, a lion, likes to eat fish."
redefines or clarify its antecedent
APOSTROPHE
functions
shorten expressions
"I'm not home." (I am)
contraction
"I'll do it." (I will)
"Who'd have thought?" (Who would)
ownership
(possessive)
"Howard's cat." (the cat belongs to him)
:warning: doesn't apply to pronouns (mine, theirs, ours etc)
plural ownership?
:warning:
if "s" ending
"Burnses' house." (+"es")
if pluralized with "s"
"Harpers' house."
plurals?
only for lowercase letter
"He ends all his letters with x's and o's."
COLON
introduces quotation
link
clauses
"She wants to travel for one reason: ice cream."
phrases
to separate 2 elements
add information, lists etc.
SEMICOLON
unite connected sentences closely (
two independent clauses
)
separate complex
sentences
lists (in sections)
SYNTAX
SENTENCES
simple
1 indepedent clause
no dependent clause
compound
more than 1 indep clause
no dependent clause
complex
made of
1 indep clause
at least 1 depen clause
compound complex
more than 1 indep
at least 1 depen
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
who is the subject?
the main person of the action
what is the predicate?
the rest of the sentence
OBJECTS
direct
object/item acted upon
"Leah ate /
the sandwich
(direct object)/ as fast as she could."
indirect
3rd element
can be the recipient
"The court sent /
me
(indirect object)/ a letter."
PHRASES AND CLAUSES
phrases
don't have subject/verb
can be
noun
adjective
adverb
clauses
have subject/verb
can be
independent
can function on its own
dependent
needs an indep to function
may begin with a
prepositional phrase/subordinanting conjunction
clause placement order
preferably
beginning or end
if beginning
:warning: may add a comma to separate
"After the storm, we went outside."
relative clauses
"The woman /who wore the red hat/."
CONVENTIONS
agreement
subject-verb
pronoun-antecedent (reference)
fragment
can't stand on its own + end in a period
it's gramatically incorrect
run-ons
junction of 2 indep clauses with no pontuaction/conjuctions
comma splice
when 2 indep clauses should use a period/semicolon
dangling modifiers
semantical error :warning:
"Having a cart full of items, Anya let the woman buying just one thing go ahead of her in line." (correct meaning) :check:
"Having a cart full of itens, the women buying just one thing moved ahead in the line." (wrong meaning) :red_cross:
parallel structure
most common in tense and aspect (verbs)
also active and passive voice
infinitive and other forms
modifiers
mostly stylistic
at/on/in/by
transportation
on -> large vehicles (train/bus/plane/boat:warning: /bicycle)
in -> small vehicles (car, taxi, boat:warning:)
by -> mean used (car/plane/bus/boat...)
location
at -> very specific
on -> on an area/surface
in -> inside
by -> close/near
time
specific/exact time (hour+min) <- at
days (of the week, special dates) <- on
weeks, months, years (long time) <- in
end/limit of a specific time <- by
VERBALS
infinitive
"He is going home
to vote
(<- adverb)."
function as a noun, adjective or adverb
tenses
present
future action ("I plan
to travel
.")
perfect
completed action before another action ("He seems
to have
forgotten
his keys.")
continuous
ongoing action ("He was happy
to be
playing
soccer.")
gerund
cook -> cook
ing
(noun)
usually a noun
also they can act as subjects, objects or complements
tenses
present
ongoing action/state ("
Swimming
is my favorite sport.")
past
occurred action before another past action ("
Having
finished
his work, he went home.")
perfect
action that occurred before a past action ("
Having
studied
for hours, she passed the exam.")
participle
present
to boil -> boil
ing
(often adjective)
past
break -> brok
en
(often adjective)
endings -ed, -d, -t, -en, -n
tenses
(verbs)
perfect/completed
past participle
He has
eat
en
his dinner.
:warning: used for passive voice constructions
The book
will be
rea
d
.
progressive/continuous
present participle
He is
eat
ing
his inner.
require finite verbs
to be
to have