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Chapter 10, CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE, (PRION: an infectious protein that…

- - - - DNA TECHNOLOGY: modern laboratory technique for studying and manipulating genetic material
        
        BIOTECHNOLGY: the manipulation of organism or their components to make a useful product
        
        BIOINFORMATICS:describe the process by which biological imformation is stores and analyse by the use of computer and other softwares and analyse the data
      - RECOMBINANT DNA: formed when scientists combine pieces of DNA from two sources- often from two different species
      - GENETIC ENGINEERING: the direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes
      - PLASMIDS: small, circular DNA molecule that replicate separately from the much larger bacterial chromosome
      - DNA CLONING: this is the production of many identical copies of a target segment of DNA
      - VECTOR: a bacterial plasmid serves as vector
      - DNA LIGASE: joins two DNA molecules by way of covalent bonds
      - CLONE: a population of genetically identical cells
      - GENE CLONING: when DNA cloning involves a gene-carrying segment of DNA
      - NUCLEIC ACID PROBE: used to find a specific gene or other nucleotide sequence within a mass of DNA
      - REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE: a viral enzyme that can synthesize DNA from and RNA template
      - COMPLEMENTARY DNA (cDNA): represents only the subset of genes that had been transcribed into mRNA in the starting cells
        
        WHOLE-GONOME SHORTGUN: escribe the method by which start cloning and sequencing of DNA fragments random cutting of DNA derive from the genome
        
        RESTRICTION ENZYMES are bacterial enzymes use as a cutting tool
        
        RESTRICTION FRAGMENTS: DNA molecule produce from DNA molecule cut up by restriction enzyme and they re useful in genetic engineering procedures.
    - - TRANSGENIC ORGANISM: when a gene is transplanted from one organism into another, typically of another species, this is the recombinant organism
      - SHORT TANDEM : series of short DNA sequence that repeated many time in a row
    - - FORENSICS: the scientific analysis of evidence for crime scene investigations and other legal proceedings
      - POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR): a technique in which a specific segment of a DNA molecule can be targeted and quickly amplified in the laboratory
      - PRIMERS: chemically synthesized single- stranded DNA molecules with sequences that are complementary to sequences at each end of the target sequence
      - GEL-ELECTROPHORESIS: a method that separates macromolecules- usually proteins or nucleic acids- on the basis of size, electrical charge, or other physical properties
      - NUCLEIC ACID PROBE: have several practical application. The can be used in DNA microarray to test the expression of many genes at once
      - STR ANALYSIS; a method of DNA profiling that compares the lengths of STR sequence at specific sites in the genome.
        
        REPETETIVE DNA: a nucleotide sequence that are present in multi copies in the genome It is most found in human in between genes..
    - - HUMAN GENOME PROJECT(HGP): an international organization that put their efforts together to map out and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome.
      - PROTECOMIC: Is the study of the whole set of and their reactions.
  - - - TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS: in order to function, eukaryotic RNA polymerase requires the assistance of proteins.
        
        some transcription factors are essential for the transcription of all protein-coding genes, and others are specific to a few or just one gene
      - ENHANCERS: they are the first step in initiating gene transcription is the binding of activator proteins to DNA control sequences
        
        enhancers are usually located far away on the chromosome from the gene they help regulate
      - ALTERNATIVE RNA SPLICING: an organism can produce more than one type of polypeptide from a single gene
    - - MICRORNAs (miRNAs): it can bind to complementary sequences on mRNA molecules
      - SMALL INTERFERING RNAs (siRNAs): associated with the same proteins as miRNAs and produce similar results
      - RNA INTERFERENCE (RNAi): the blocking of gene expression by siRNA
    - - ADULT STEM CELL:are cell capable for differenciating into multiple cell type,they re usually present in adult tissues that generate replacement for nondividing cell.
      - CARCINAOGEN: agent that alter DNA and make cells cancerous because most cancer arises from mutation cause by the environment.
      - EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS: are made through natural sexual reproduction or produce via transplantation.
      - THERAPETIC CLONING: cloning a human cell by nuclear transplantion for therapautic purpose for the generation of embroytic stem cell. this type of cloning could be us to treat disease due to ES cell.
      - Totipotent : when a cell gives rise to all the type of ells in plants.
  - - - TUMOE-SUPPRESOR GENE:gene whose protein inhibits the cell division thereby preventing the uncontrolled cell growth. Mutation can deactivate tumor suppressor gene may lead to cancer.
- - - - Emerging viruses:
        
        HIV: a virus spread through certain body fluids that attacks the body’s immune system, specifically the CD4 cells, often called T cells. Over time, HIV can destroy so many of these cells that the body can’t fight off infections and disease.
        
        AIDS: The stage of infection with HIV-1, or HIV, in which an infected person's immune system has become so weak that he or she is at risk of developing other infections or cancers
        
        retrovirus: type of virus that uses RNA as its genetic material. After infecting a cell, a retrovirus uses an enzyme called reverse transcriptase to convert its RNA into DNA.
        
        reverse transcriptase: an enzyme encoded from the genetic material of retroviruses that catalyzes the transcription of retrovirus RNA into DNA
        
        prion-, an abnormal form of a normally harmless protein found in the brain that is responsible for a variety of fatal neurodegenerative diseases of animals, including humans.
        
        transformation: one of several processes by which genetic material in the form of “naked” deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is transferred between microbial cells.
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        transduction: the process by which a virus transfers genetic material from one bacterium to another.
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        conjugation: This is the process by which one bacterium transfers genetic material to another through direct contact.
        
        F factor: fertility factor. a plasmid in certain bacteria that enables transfer of genetic material from a donor cell to a recipient by conjugation, resulting in recombination, a sex chromosome or gene.
        
        plasmid: small, extrachromosomal DNA molecule within a cell that is physically separated from chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently
        
        R plasmid: Shortened term for resistance plasmid that confers certain bacterial strain the acquired ability to resist the antimicrobial activity of some drugs.
  - - - HISTONE : an important small protein molecule in DNA packing in in eukaryotic chromosome. The eukaryotic chromatic consist of roughly equal part of DNA and histone protein.
- - - - R PLASMIDS: a bacterial plasmid that carries gene for enzymes that destroys antibiotic making bacterial to be resist to antibiotic.
      - PLASMID: A small circular DNA molecule seperate from the bacterial chromosome.
- - - - DNA LIGASE: Links or ligates the pieces the pieces together into a single DNA strand.
- - - - Codons: The genetic instructions from the DNA and RNA as a series of non-overlapping three base words called codons.
        
        GENETIC CODE: the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences) is translated into proteins (amino acid sequences) by living cells.
        
        RNA POLYMERASE: After seperation of the two DNA strands one strand as a template for a new RNA molecule; the other DNA strand is unused. The transcription enzyme RNA POLYMERASE moves along the gene forming a new RNA strand by following the base pairing rules.
        
        Promoter: A specific nucleotide sequence called a promotor acts as a binding site for RNA Polymerase. and determines where transcription starts.
        
        Terminator: DNA sequence at the end of a transcription unit that causes RNA polymerase to stop transcription
        
        Messenger RNA: single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to one of the DNA strands of a gene. The mRNA is an RNA version of the gene that leaves the cell nucleus and moves to the cytoplasm where proteins are made.
        
        Introns: non coding sections of an RNA transcript, or the DNA encoding it, that are spliced out before the RNA molecule is translated into a protein
        
        Exons: coding region of a gene that contains the information required to encode a protein
        
        RNA Splicing: A two step reaction in which introns are removed from a primary RNA transcript and exons are joined together to form a mature MRA
        
        Transfer RNA (trna): Transfer RNAs or tRNAs are molecules that act as temporary carriers of amino acids, bringing the appropriate amino acids to the ribosome based on the messenger RNA (mRNA) nucleotide sequence.
        
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        mutation: change that occurs in our DNA sequence, either due to mistakes when the DNA is copied or as the result of environmental factors. _
        
        silent mutation: a change in the sequence of nucleotide bases which constitutes DNA, without a subsequent change in the amino acid or the function of the overall protein
        
        missense mutation: when the change of a single base pair causes the substitution of a different amino acid in the resulting protein.
        
        nonsense mutation: genetic mutation in a DNA sequence that results in a shorter, unfinished protein product.
        
        frameshift mutation: genetic mutation caused by a deletion or insertion in a DNA sequence that shifts the way the sequence is read.
        
        mutagen: Any agent (physical or environmental) that can induce a genetic mutation or can increase the rate of mutation.Any factor that is responsible from an increase in the frequency of mutations of an organism