Chapter 10

Chapter 11

Chapter 12

PHAGE: virus that eats bacteria

NUCLEOTIDES: DNA and RNA are nucleic acids consisting of, long chains of chemical units

POLYNUCLEOTIDE: one of the strands is opened up to show two different views of an individual DNA

SUGAR-PHOSPHATE BACKBONE: nucleotides that are joined to one another by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA): its the form of the sugar and where it is located in the nuclei of the eukaryotic cell

4 NUCLEOTIDES FOUND IN DNA:

THYMINE (T): single-ring structure called pyrimidines

CYTOSINE (C): single-ring structure called pyrimidines

GUANINE (G): larger, double-ring structure called purines

ADENINE (A): larger, double-ring structure called purines

the difference between RNA and DNA is that instead of thymine, RNA has a nitrogenous base

CYTOSINE (C)

CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION

GENE REGULATION: the turning on and off of genes, it can help organisms respond to environmental changes

PROMOTER: a site where the transcription enzyme, RNA polymerase, attaches and initiates transcription

OPERATOR: DNA control sequence that acts as a switch

OPERON: cluster of genes with related functions, along with the control sequences

REPRESSOR: when the transcription is turned off because this protein binds to the operator and physically blocks the attachment of RNA polymerase to the promotor

REGULATORY GENE: located outside the operon, it codes doe the repressor. it is expressed continually, so the cell always has a small supply of the repressor molecules

ACTIVATORS: proteins that turn operons on by binding to DNA and stimulating DNA transcription

CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE

DIFFERENTIATION: it is a specialized structure and function, with each type of cells that fulfills a distinct role

NUCLEOSOME: consists of DNA that is wound twice around a protein core of eight histone molecules.

EPIGENETIC INHERITANCE: inheritance of traits that is transmitted by mechanisms that are not directly involving the nucleotide sequence

X CHROMOSOME INACTIVATION: it is initiated early in embryonic development, when one of the two X chromosomes in each cell is inactivated at random

BARR BODY: the inactive X in each cell of a female condenses into a compact object

COMPLEX ASSEMBLIES OF EUKARYOTIC TRANSCRIPTION

TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS: in order to function, eukaryotic RNA polymerase requires the assistance of proteins.

some transcription factors are essential for the transcription of all protein-coding genes, and others are specific to a few or just one gene

ENHANCERS: they are the first step in initiating gene transcription is the binding of activator proteins to DNA control sequences

enhancers are usually located far away on the chromosome from the gene they help regulate

ALTERNATIVE RNA SPLICING: an organism can produce more than one type of polypeptide from a single gene

NONCODING RNAs

MICRORNAs (miRNAs): it can bind to complementary sequences on mRNA molecules

SMALL INTERFERING RNAs (siRNAs): associated with the same proteins as miRNAs and produce similar results

RNA INTERFERENCE (RNAi): the blocking of gene expression by siRNA

GENE CLONGING AND EDITING

DNA TECHNOLOGY: modern laboratory technique for studying and manipulating genetic material

RECOMBINANT DNA: formed when scientists combine pieces of DNA from two sources- often from two different species

GENETIC ENGINEERING: the direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes

PLASMIDS: small, circular DNA molecule that replicate separately from the much larger bacterial chromosome

DNA CLONING: this is the production of many identical copies of a target segment of DNA

VECTOR: a bacterial plasmid serves as vector

DNA LIGASE: joins two DNA molecules by way of covalent bonds

CLONE: a population of genetically identical cells

GENE CLONING: when DNA cloning involves a gene-carrying segment of DNA

VACCINE: harmless variant or derivative of a pathogen- usually a bacterium or virus

NUCLEIC ACID PROBE: used to find a specific gene or other nucleotide sequence within a mass of DNA

REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE: a viral enzyme that can synthesize DNA from and RNA template

COMPLEMENTARY DNA (cDNA): represents only the subset of genes that had been transcribed into mRNA in the starting cells

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS (GMOs): organisms that have acquired one or more genes by artificial means

TRANSGENIC ORGANISM: when a gene is transplanted from one organism into another, typically of another species, this is the recombinant organism

GENE THERAPY: alteration of a diseased individual's genes for therapeutic purposes

DNA PROFILING: the analysis of DNA samples to determine whether they came from the same individual

FORENSICS: the scientific analysis of evidence for crime scene investigations and other legal proceedings

POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR): a technique in which a specific segment of a DNA molecule can be targeted and quickly amplified in the laboratory

PRIMERS: chemically synthesized single- stranded DNA molecules with sequences that are complementary to sequences at each end of the target sequence

GEL-ELECTROPHORESIS: a method that separates macromolecules- usually proteins or nucleic acids- on the basis of size, electrical charge, or other physical properties

The Structure of the Genetic Material

Double helix: two polynucleotides form a double helix

DNA replication:

SEMICONSERVATIVE MODEL: Describes the mechanism of DNA replication in all known cells. This shows half half of the parental molecule is maintained in each daughter molecule.

DNA POLYMERASES: Enzymes that link DNA nuceleotides to a growing daughter strand

DNA LIGASE: Links or ligates the pieces the pieces together into a single DNA strand.

The flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to Protein

TRANSLATION: The synthesis of proteins under the direction of RNA

Triplet Code: Experiments have verified that flow of information from gene to protein

Codons: The genetic instructions from the DNA and RNA as a series of non-overlapping three base words called codons.

GENETIC CODE: the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences) is translated into proteins (amino acid sequences) by living cells.

RNA POLYMERASE: After seperation of the two DNA strands one strand as a template for a new RNA molecule; the other DNA strand is unused. The transcription enzyme RNA POLYMERASE moves along the gene forming a new RNA strand by following the base pairing rules.

Promoter: A specific nucleotide sequence called a promotor acts as a binding site for RNA Polymerase. and determines where transcription starts.

TRANSCRIPTION: The synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA

Terminator: DNA sequence at the end of a transcription unit that causes RNA polymerase to stop transcription

Messenger RNA: single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to one of the DNA strands of a gene. The mRNA is an RNA version of the gene that leaves the cell nucleus and moves to the cytoplasm where proteins are made.

Introns: non coding sections of an RNA transcript, or the DNA encoding it, that are spliced out before the RNA molecule is translated into a protein

Exons: coding region of a gene that contains the information required to encode a protein

RNA Splicing: A two step reaction in which introns are removed from a primary RNA transcript and exons are joined together to form a mature MRA

Transfer RNA (trna): Transfer RNAs or tRNAs are molecules that act as temporary carriers of amino acids, bringing the appropriate amino acids to the ribosome based on the messenger RNA (mRNA) nucleotide sequence.

Anticodon: triplet of nucleotide bases in transfer RNA that identifies the amino acid carried and binds to a complementary codon in messenger RNA during protein synthesis at a ribosome.

ribosome: sphere-shaped structure within the cytoplasm of a cell that is composed of RNA and protein and is the site of protein synthesis.

ribosomal RNA (rRNA): the RNA component of ribosomes, the molecular machines that catalyze protein synthesis

start codon: a genetic codon in messenger RNA that stimulates the binding of a transfer RNA which starts protein synthesis

stop codon: trinucleotide sequence within a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule that signals a halt to protein synthesis.

mutation: change that occurs in our DNA sequence, either due to mistakes when the DNA is copied or as the result of environmental factors. _

silent mutation: a change in the sequence of nucleotide bases which constitutes DNA, without a subsequent change in the amino acid or the function of the overall protein

missense mutation: when the change of a single base pair causes the substitution of a different amino acid in the resulting protein.

nonsense mutation: genetic mutation in a DNA sequence that results in a shorter, unfinished protein product.

frameshift mutation: genetic mutation caused by a deletion or insertion in a DNA sequence that shifts the way the sequence is read.

mutagen: Any agent (physical or environmental) that can induce a genetic mutation or can increase the rate of mutation.Any factor that is responsible from an increase in the frequency of mutations of an organism

The Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria

Virus: An infectious particle consisting of little more than "genes in a box"

lytic cycle: DNA is multiplied many times and proteins are formed using processes stolen from the bacteria Lysis breaks open of the host cell and releases newly produced viruses

Capsid: A bit of nucleic acid wrapped in a protein coat

lysogenic cycle:A method by which a virus can replicate its DNA using a host cell.

Prophage: stable, inherited form of bacteriophage in which the genetic material of the virus is integrated into, replicated, and expressed with the genetic material of the bacterial host.

Emerging viruses:

HIV: a virus spread through certain body fluids that attacks the body’s immune system, specifically the CD4 cells, often called T cells. Over time, HIV can destroy so many of these cells that the body can’t fight off infections and disease.

AIDS: The stage of infection with HIV-1, or HIV, in which an infected person's immune system has become so weak that he or she is at risk of developing other infections or cancers

retrovirus: type of virus that uses RNA as its genetic material. After infecting a cell, a retrovirus uses an enzyme called reverse transcriptase to convert its RNA into DNA.

reverse transcriptase: an enzyme encoded from the genetic material of retroviruses that catalyzes the transcription of retrovirus RNA into DNA

prion-, an abnormal form of a normally harmless protein found in the brain that is responsible for a variety of fatal neurodegenerative diseases of animals, including humans.

transformation: one of several processes by which genetic material in the form of “naked” deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is transferred between microbial cells.
·

transduction: the process by which a virus transfers genetic material from one bacterium to another.
· ·
_

conjugation: This is the process by which one bacterium transfers genetic material to another through direct contact.

F factor: fertility factor. a plasmid in certain bacteria that enables transfer of genetic material from a donor cell to a recipient by conjugation, resulting in recombination, a sex chromosome or gene.

plasmid: small, extrachromosomal DNA molecule within a cell that is physically separated from chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently

R plasmid: Shortened term for resistance plasmid that confers certain bacterial strain the acquired ability to resist the antimicrobial activity of some drugs.

GENE REGULATION: the process of turning on and off of genes within a cell in response to environmental stimuti or other factors

Nucelotide: one of the structural components, or building blocks, of DNA and RNA. A nucleotide consists of a base (one of four chemicals: adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine) plus a molecule of sugar and one of phosphoric acid.

DNA LIGASE: are very vital for they re responsible for repairing DNA damaged by harmful radiation or toxic chemicals.

click to edit

click to edit

TRANSFORMATION: Is the incoperation of new gene into a cell from DNA that the cell takes up from the surrounding.

VIRUS: particles capable of infecting the cell of the living organism. Virus have RNA instead of DNA as their genetic material.

click to edit

PRION: an infectious protein that causes a number of brain diseases in animals

TRANSDUCTION: Is the transfer of bacterial genes by a phage and it happen during the lytic infection.

RETROVIRUS: is an RNA virus that reproduces by the means of a DNA molecules

HIV: is a retrovirus and it uses RNA genome as a templete for making DNA

REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE: an enzymes that catalyzes reverse transcription , the synthesis of the DNA on an RNA templete.

click to edit

PROPHAGE: Is a phage DNA and this viral dna is inserted into the bacterial chromosome becomes prophage.

click to edit

click to edit

click to edit

R PLASMIDS: a bacterial plasmid that carries gene for enzymes that destroys antibiotic making bacterial to be resist to antibiotic.

PLASMID: A small circular DNA molecule seperate from the bacterial chromosome.

SUGAR-PHOSPHATE BACKBONE:these are nucleotides joined to one another by a covalent bond between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate

click to edit

click to edit

ANTICODON: compliment the triplet codon on on mRNA and durning translation anticodon on the tRNA recognizes the a codon on mRNA to pair with.

FRAMESHIFT MUTATION: occur whenever the number of nucleotides inserted and deleted and is not multiple of three.

CLONE: Produce genetically identical copies of a cell c organism or a DNA molecule.

ADULT STEM CELL:are cell capable for differenciating into multiple cell type,they re usually present in adult tissues that generate replacement for nondividing cell.

CARCINAOGEN: agent that alter DNA and make cells cancerous because most cancer arises from mutation cause by the environment.

EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS: are made through natural sexual reproduction or produce via transplantation.

THERAPETIC CLONING: cloning a human cell by nuclear transplantion for therapautic purpose for the generation of embroytic stem cell. this type of cloning could be us to treat disease due to ES cell.

click to edit

CLONING OF PLAN T AND ANIMAL

Totipotent : when a cell gives rise to all the type of ells in plants.

REPRODUCTIVE CLONING: describe the use of somatic cell from multicellular organism to make one or more genetically identical individuals.

PROTO-ONCOGENE: a normal healthy gene whenever it is change it becomes a cancer causing oncogene.

REGENERATION: an ability of invertebrate animal to regrowth of their lost body part.Most invertebrate animal foe example are the sea star fish and the sponges.

SIENNA MOORE, NYIMA CEESAY-BOJANG,
PRIYANKA BALI

click to edit

GENETIC BASIS OF CANCER

TUMOE-SUPPRESOR GENE:gene whose protein inhibits the cell division thereby preventing the uncontrolled cell growth. Mutation can deactivate tumor suppressor gene may lead to cancer.

click to edit

click to edit

SMALL INTERFERING RNA(siRNA): They re associated with the protein and they also similar in size and function to miRNA.

NUCLEIC ACID HYBRIDIZATION: process describing a base paring between gene and a complimentary sequence on the other nucleic acid.

NUCLEAR TRANSPLATATION:describe the technique in which the nucleus on one cell is place into another cell that already has a nucleus or the nucleus has been destroyed.

CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION

click to edit

click to edit

click to edit

click to edit

HOMEOTIC GENE: a master control gene that determine the identify bod structure of a developing organism by controlling the developmental fate of groups cells.

click to edit

HISTONE : an important small protein molecule in DNA packing in in eukaryotic chromosome. The eukaryotic chromatic consist of roughly equal part of DNA and histone protein.

click to edit

DNA MICROARRAY;Is used to detect and measure the expression of thousand of gene at one or the same time.

BIOTECHNOLGY: the manipulation of organism or their components to make a useful product

BIOINFORMATICS:describe the process by which biological imformation is stores and analyse by the use of computer and other softwares and analyse the data

GENOMICS: is the study of complete sets of genes and their interactions.

HUMAN GENOME PROJECT(HGP): an international organization that put their efforts together to map out and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome.

:

click to edit

NUCLEIC ACID PROBE: have several practical application. The can be used in DNA microarray to test the expression of many genes at once

click to edit

PROTECOMIC: Is the study of the whole set of and their reactions.

STR ANALYSIS; a method of DNA profiling that compares the lengths of STR sequence at specific sites in the genome.

REPETETIVE DNA: a nucleotide sequence that are present in multi copies in the genome It is most found in human in between genes..

WHOLE-GONOME SHORTGUN: escribe the method by which start cloning and sequencing of DNA fragments random cutting of DNA derive from the genome

RESTRICTION ENZYMES are bacterial enzymes use as a cutting tool

RESTRICTED SITE: known as a cut site by restricted enzymes which recognizes a specific sequence on a DNA strand

RESTRICTION FRAGMENTS: DNA molecule produce from DNA molecule cut up by restriction enzyme and they re useful in genetic engineering procedures.

SHORT TANDEM : series of short DNA sequence that repeated many time in a row

ONCOGENE: Is a cancer causing gene usually abnormal and can enhance the growth factor of cancer cell.

GENE : a unit of hereditary information consisting of specific nucleotide sequence in a DNA or RNA in some virus