Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
PHAGE: virus that eats bacteria
NUCLEOTIDES: DNA and RNA are nucleic acids consisting of, long chains of chemical units
POLYNUCLEOTIDE: one of the strands is opened up to show two different views of an individual DNA
SUGAR-PHOSPHATE BACKBONE: nucleotides that are joined to one another by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA): its the form of the sugar and where it is located in the nuclei of the eukaryotic cell
4 NUCLEOTIDES FOUND IN DNA:
THYMINE (T): single-ring structure called pyrimidines
CYTOSINE (C): single-ring structure called pyrimidines
GUANINE (G): larger, double-ring structure called purines
ADENINE (A): larger, double-ring structure called purines
the difference between RNA and DNA is that instead of thymine, RNA has a nitrogenous base
CYTOSINE (C)
CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION
GENE REGULATION: the turning on and off of genes, it can help organisms respond to environmental changes
PROMOTER: a site where the transcription enzyme, RNA polymerase, attaches and initiates transcription
OPERATOR: DNA control sequence that acts as a switch
OPERON: cluster of genes with related functions, along with the control sequences
REPRESSOR: when the transcription is turned off because this protein binds to the operator and physically blocks the attachment of RNA polymerase to the promotor
REGULATORY GENE: located outside the operon, it codes doe the repressor. it is expressed continually, so the cell always has a small supply of the repressor molecules
ACTIVATORS: proteins that turn operons on by binding to DNA and stimulating DNA transcription
CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE
DIFFERENTIATION: it is a specialized structure and function, with each type of cells that fulfills a distinct role
NUCLEOSOME: consists of DNA that is wound twice around a protein core of eight histone molecules.
EPIGENETIC INHERITANCE: inheritance of traits that is transmitted by mechanisms that are not directly involving the nucleotide sequence
X CHROMOSOME INACTIVATION: it is initiated early in embryonic development, when one of the two X chromosomes in each cell is inactivated at random
BARR BODY: the inactive X in each cell of a female condenses into a compact object
COMPLEX ASSEMBLIES OF EUKARYOTIC TRANSCRIPTION
TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS: in order to function, eukaryotic RNA polymerase requires the assistance of proteins.
some transcription factors are essential for the transcription of all protein-coding genes, and others are specific to a few or just one gene
ENHANCERS: they are the first step in initiating gene transcription is the binding of activator proteins to DNA control sequences
enhancers are usually located far away on the chromosome from the gene they help regulate
ALTERNATIVE RNA SPLICING: an organism can produce more than one type of polypeptide from a single gene
NONCODING RNAs
MICRORNAs (miRNAs): it can bind to complementary sequences on mRNA molecules
SMALL INTERFERING RNAs (siRNAs): associated with the same proteins as miRNAs and produce similar results
RNA INTERFERENCE (RNAi): the blocking of gene expression by siRNA
GENE CLONGING AND EDITING
DNA TECHNOLOGY: modern laboratory technique for studying and manipulating genetic material
RECOMBINANT DNA: formed when scientists combine pieces of DNA from two sources- often from two different species
GENETIC ENGINEERING: the direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes
PLASMIDS: small, circular DNA molecule that replicate separately from the much larger bacterial chromosome
DNA CLONING: this is the production of many identical copies of a target segment of DNA
VECTOR: a bacterial plasmid serves as vector
DNA LIGASE: joins two DNA molecules by way of covalent bonds
CLONE: a population of genetically identical cells
GENE CLONING: when DNA cloning involves a gene-carrying segment of DNA
VACCINE: harmless variant or derivative of a pathogen- usually a bacterium or virus
NUCLEIC ACID PROBE: used to find a specific gene or other nucleotide sequence within a mass of DNA
REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE: a viral enzyme that can synthesize DNA from and RNA template
COMPLEMENTARY DNA (cDNA): represents only the subset of genes that had been transcribed into mRNA in the starting cells
GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS (GMOs): organisms that have acquired one or more genes by artificial means
TRANSGENIC ORGANISM: when a gene is transplanted from one organism into another, typically of another species, this is the recombinant organism
GENE THERAPY: alteration of a diseased individual's genes for therapeutic purposes
DNA PROFILING: the analysis of DNA samples to determine whether they came from the same individual
FORENSICS: the scientific analysis of evidence for crime scene investigations and other legal proceedings
POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR): a technique in which a specific segment of a DNA molecule can be targeted and quickly amplified in the laboratory
PRIMERS: chemically synthesized single- stranded DNA molecules with sequences that are complementary to sequences at each end of the target sequence
GEL-ELECTROPHORESIS: a method that separates macromolecules- usually proteins or nucleic acids- on the basis of size, electrical charge, or other physical properties
The Structure of the Genetic Material
Double helix: two polynucleotides form a double helix
DNA replication:
SEMICONSERVATIVE MODEL: Describes the mechanism of DNA replication in all known cells. This shows half half of the parental molecule is maintained in each daughter molecule.
DNA POLYMERASES: Enzymes that link DNA nuceleotides to a growing daughter strand
DNA LIGASE: Links or ligates the pieces the pieces together into a single DNA strand.
The flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to Protein
TRANSLATION: The synthesis of proteins under the direction of RNA
Triplet Code: Experiments have verified that flow of information from gene to protein
Codons: The genetic instructions from the DNA and RNA as a series of non-overlapping three base words called codons.
GENETIC CODE: the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences) is translated into proteins (amino acid sequences) by living cells.
RNA POLYMERASE: After seperation of the two DNA strands one strand as a template for a new RNA molecule; the other DNA strand is unused. The transcription enzyme RNA POLYMERASE moves along the gene forming a new RNA strand by following the base pairing rules.
Promoter: A specific nucleotide sequence called a promotor acts as a binding site for RNA Polymerase. and determines where transcription starts.
TRANSCRIPTION: The synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA
Terminator: DNA sequence at the end of a transcription unit that causes RNA polymerase to stop transcription
Messenger RNA: single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to one of the DNA strands of a gene. The mRNA is an RNA version of the gene that leaves the cell nucleus and moves to the cytoplasm where proteins are made.
Introns: non coding sections of an RNA transcript, or the DNA encoding it, that are spliced out before the RNA molecule is translated into a protein
Exons: coding region of a gene that contains the information required to encode a protein
RNA Splicing: A two step reaction in which introns are removed from a primary RNA transcript and exons are joined together to form a mature MRA
Transfer RNA (trna): Transfer RNAs or tRNAs are molecules that act as temporary carriers of amino acids, bringing the appropriate amino acids to the ribosome based on the messenger RNA (mRNA) nucleotide sequence.
Anticodon: triplet of nucleotide bases in transfer RNA that identifies the amino acid carried and binds to a complementary codon in messenger RNA during protein synthesis at a ribosome.
ribosome: sphere-shaped structure within the cytoplasm of a cell that is composed of RNA and protein and is the site of protein synthesis.
ribosomal RNA (rRNA): the RNA component of ribosomes, the molecular machines that catalyze protein synthesis
start codon: a genetic codon in messenger RNA that stimulates the binding of a transfer RNA which starts protein synthesis
stop codon: trinucleotide sequence within a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule that signals a halt to protein synthesis.
mutation: change that occurs in our DNA sequence, either due to mistakes when the DNA is copied or as the result of environmental factors. _
silent mutation: a change in the sequence of nucleotide bases which constitutes DNA, without a subsequent change in the amino acid or the function of the overall protein
missense mutation: when the change of a single base pair causes the substitution of a different amino acid in the resulting protein.
nonsense mutation: genetic mutation in a DNA sequence that results in a shorter, unfinished protein product.
frameshift mutation: genetic mutation caused by a deletion or insertion in a DNA sequence that shifts the way the sequence is read.
mutagen: Any agent (physical or environmental) that can induce a genetic mutation or can increase the rate of mutation.Any factor that is responsible from an increase in the frequency of mutations of an organism
The Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria
Virus: An infectious particle consisting of little more than "genes in a box"
lytic cycle: DNA is multiplied many times and proteins are formed using processes stolen from the bacteria Lysis breaks open of the host cell and releases newly produced viruses
Capsid: A bit of nucleic acid wrapped in a protein coat
lysogenic cycle:A method by which a virus can replicate its DNA using a host cell.
Prophage: stable, inherited form of bacteriophage in which the genetic material of the virus is integrated into, replicated, and expressed with the genetic material of the bacterial host.
Emerging viruses:
HIV: a virus spread through certain body fluids that attacks the body’s immune system, specifically the CD4 cells, often called T cells. Over time, HIV can destroy so many of these cells that the body can’t fight off infections and disease.
AIDS: The stage of infection with HIV-1, or HIV, in which an infected person's immune system has become so weak that he or she is at risk of developing other infections or cancers
retrovirus: type of virus that uses RNA as its genetic material. After infecting a cell, a retrovirus uses an enzyme called reverse transcriptase to convert its RNA into DNA.
reverse transcriptase: an enzyme encoded from the genetic material of retroviruses that catalyzes the transcription of retrovirus RNA into DNA
prion-, an abnormal form of a normally harmless protein found in the brain that is responsible for a variety of fatal neurodegenerative diseases of animals, including humans.
transformation: one of several processes by which genetic material in the form of “naked” deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is transferred between microbial cells.
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transduction: the process by which a virus transfers genetic material from one bacterium to another.
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conjugation: This is the process by which one bacterium transfers genetic material to another through direct contact.
F factor: fertility factor. a plasmid in certain bacteria that enables transfer of genetic material from a donor cell to a recipient by conjugation, resulting in recombination, a sex chromosome or gene.
plasmid: small, extrachromosomal DNA molecule within a cell that is physically separated from chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently
R plasmid: Shortened term for resistance plasmid that confers certain bacterial strain the acquired ability to resist the antimicrobial activity of some drugs.
GENE REGULATION: the process of turning on and off of genes within a cell in response to environmental stimuti or other factors
Nucelotide: one of the structural components, or building blocks, of DNA and RNA. A nucleotide consists of a base (one of four chemicals: adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine) plus a molecule of sugar and one of phosphoric acid.
DNA LIGASE: are very vital for they re responsible for repairing DNA damaged by harmful radiation or toxic chemicals.
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TRANSFORMATION: Is the incoperation of new gene into a cell from DNA that the cell takes up from the surrounding.
VIRUS: particles capable of infecting the cell of the living organism. Virus have RNA instead of DNA as their genetic material.
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PRION: an infectious protein that causes a number of brain diseases in animals
TRANSDUCTION: Is the transfer of bacterial genes by a phage and it happen during the lytic infection.
RETROVIRUS: is an RNA virus that reproduces by the means of a DNA molecules
HIV: is a retrovirus and it uses RNA genome as a templete for making DNA
REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE: an enzymes that catalyzes reverse transcription , the synthesis of the DNA on an RNA templete.
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PROPHAGE: Is a phage DNA and this viral dna is inserted into the bacterial chromosome becomes prophage.
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R PLASMIDS: a bacterial plasmid that carries gene for enzymes that destroys antibiotic making bacterial to be resist to antibiotic.
PLASMID: A small circular DNA molecule seperate from the bacterial chromosome.
SUGAR-PHOSPHATE BACKBONE:these are nucleotides joined to one another by a covalent bond between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate
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ANTICODON: compliment the triplet codon on on mRNA and durning translation anticodon on the tRNA recognizes the a codon on mRNA to pair with.
FRAMESHIFT MUTATION: occur whenever the number of nucleotides inserted and deleted and is not multiple of three.
CLONE: Produce genetically identical copies of a cell c organism or a DNA molecule.
ADULT STEM CELL:are cell capable for differenciating into multiple cell type,they re usually present in adult tissues that generate replacement for nondividing cell.
CARCINAOGEN: agent that alter DNA and make cells cancerous because most cancer arises from mutation cause by the environment.
EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS: are made through natural sexual reproduction or produce via transplantation.
THERAPETIC CLONING: cloning a human cell by nuclear transplantion for therapautic purpose for the generation of embroytic stem cell. this type of cloning could be us to treat disease due to ES cell.
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CLONING OF PLAN T AND ANIMAL
Totipotent : when a cell gives rise to all the type of ells in plants.
REPRODUCTIVE CLONING: describe the use of somatic cell from multicellular organism to make one or more genetically identical individuals.
PROTO-ONCOGENE: a normal healthy gene whenever it is change it becomes a cancer causing oncogene.
REGENERATION: an ability of invertebrate animal to regrowth of their lost body part.Most invertebrate animal foe example are the sea star fish and the sponges.
SIENNA MOORE, NYIMA CEESAY-BOJANG,
PRIYANKA BALI
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GENETIC BASIS OF CANCER
TUMOE-SUPPRESOR GENE:gene whose protein inhibits the cell division thereby preventing the uncontrolled cell growth. Mutation can deactivate tumor suppressor gene may lead to cancer.
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SMALL INTERFERING RNA(siRNA): They re associated with the protein and they also similar in size and function to miRNA.
NUCLEIC ACID HYBRIDIZATION: process describing a base paring between gene and a complimentary sequence on the other nucleic acid.
NUCLEAR TRANSPLATATION:describe the technique in which the nucleus on one cell is place into another cell that already has a nucleus or the nucleus has been destroyed.
CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION
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HOMEOTIC GENE: a master control gene that determine the identify bod structure of a developing organism by controlling the developmental fate of groups cells.
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HISTONE : an important small protein molecule in DNA packing in in eukaryotic chromosome. The eukaryotic chromatic consist of roughly equal part of DNA and histone protein.
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DNA MICROARRAY;Is used to detect and measure the expression of thousand of gene at one or the same time.
BIOTECHNOLGY: the manipulation of organism or their components to make a useful product
BIOINFORMATICS:describe the process by which biological imformation is stores and analyse by the use of computer and other softwares and analyse the data
GENOMICS: is the study of complete sets of genes and their interactions.
HUMAN GENOME PROJECT(HGP): an international organization that put their efforts together to map out and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome.
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NUCLEIC ACID PROBE: have several practical application. The can be used in DNA microarray to test the expression of many genes at once
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PROTECOMIC: Is the study of the whole set of and their reactions.
STR ANALYSIS; a method of DNA profiling that compares the lengths of STR sequence at specific sites in the genome.
REPETETIVE DNA: a nucleotide sequence that are present in multi copies in the genome It is most found in human in between genes..
WHOLE-GONOME SHORTGUN: escribe the method by which start cloning and sequencing of DNA fragments random cutting of DNA derive from the genome
RESTRICTION ENZYMES are bacterial enzymes use as a cutting tool
RESTRICTED SITE: known as a cut site by restricted enzymes which recognizes a specific sequence on a DNA strand
RESTRICTION FRAGMENTS: DNA molecule produce from DNA molecule cut up by restriction enzyme and they re useful in genetic engineering procedures.
SHORT TANDEM : series of short DNA sequence that repeated many time in a row
ONCOGENE: Is a cancer causing gene usually abnormal and can enhance the growth factor of cancer cell.
GENE : a unit of hereditary information consisting of specific nucleotide sequence in a DNA or RNA in some virus