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Topic 1, Topic 4.1, Topic 2, Topic 3 :, Topic 5.1, Topic 6.1, ecological…

- - - - Stable equilibrium: If after a disturbance to the system, it then returns to its original state.
    - - Steady-state equilibrium: This is a common property of most nature-related open systems. The overall stability of the components of the system stays steady. The state may worsen or improve due to an event however it would always return to its original state.
  - - - Unstable Equilibrium: If after a disturbance, the system cannot return to its original state. However, makes a new equilibrium.
- - - - Groundwater is a non-renewable source of water as turnover time is very long. An Aquifer is an underground formation of permeable rock or loose material which stores groundwater. Aquifers can produce useful quantities of water and comes in all sizes. Unsustainable use of aquifers results in depletion of storage and natural resource, disturbing the natural equilibrium. Restoration requires tens to hundreds of years.
- - - - How long water spends in each Reservoir is called ‘Residence Time or Turnover Time’. Some water will spend much longer or shorter time
  - - - Precipitation includes all forms of rainfall, snow, frost, hail and dew. It is the conversion and transfer of moisture in the atmosphere to the land. It is measured in millimetre per square meter. Interception refers to water that is caught and stored by vegetation. It has three main components:
        
        ● Interception Loss – Water which is retained by plant surfaces and which is later evaporated away or absorbed by the plant
        
        ● Through fall – Rain that is intercepted by leaves and falls through gaps in the vegetation or which drops from leaves, twigs or stems into the soil.
        
        ● Stem Flow – Rain which is intercepted by twigs/branches, and trickles down the trunk of the tree into the soil. This prevents Soil Compaction (shields in from full force of falling rain)
- - - - Density: Temperature, salinity, and pressure affect the density of seawater. Deep Ocean Currents are driven by Density determined by where the Sun heats up water. As Temperature increases, water become Less dense, therefore Cold water is Denser than Warm water. As Salinity and Pressure increases water become More dense. When large water masses with different densities meet, the Denser Water mass (Cold water) Sinks under the Less Dense mass (Warm water). This cause Deep Sea Circulation Patterns. In polar regions, cold, salty water sinks to the depths and makes its way towards the equator, where it rises and becomes less dense as High concentrations of Solar Radiation warms the surface
      - Temperature: Temperature varies considerably at the surface of the ocean determined by where the Sun hits, but little variation deeper in depth. In tropical, equator areas, sea surface areas are about of 25 °C, caused by insolation. In the mid-latitudes (40–50° N and S) where there are seasonal latitudes, summer temperatures may reach 17 °C, whereas winter sea temperatures drop down to 10 °C. From about 300 to 1000 m, the temperature declines steeply to about 8–10 °C. Below 1000 m, the temperature decreases to 2 °C
        
        Specific Heat Capacity: The specific heat capacity is the amount of energy it takes to raise the temperature of a body. It takes more energy to heat up water than it does to heat land. However, it takes longer for water to lose heat. This is why the land is hotter than the sea by day, but colder than the sea by night.
      - Salinity: The ocean varies in salinity, average salinity is about 35 parts per thousand. Salt water is mainly composed of sodium and chlorine ions. Concentrations of salt are higher in warm seas, because of the high evaporation rates of the water. In tropical seas, salinity decreases sharply with depth. The run-off from most rivers is quickly mixed with ocean water by the currents, becoming salt water, therefore has little effect on reducing salinity. In polar regions, the freezing and thawing of ice also affects salinity. The thawing of large icebergs decreases salinity, while freezing of seawater increases the salinity temporarily. Here, salinity levels increase with depth.
- - - - In the Water - pH, Salinity, Dissolved Nutrients and Oxygen
      - In the Atmosphere - Wind speed, Humidity, Light Intensity, Precipitation, Temperature
      - In the Soil: Available nutrients, Moisture, pH, Structure, Temperature
  - - - Ectoparasite: Lives on surface of Host Ex. Ticks, Mites
      - Endoparasite: Lives inside their Host Ex. Tapeworms
      - Case Study: Rafflesia Flowers vs Terrastigma Vines
    - - Case Study: Coral Reefs and Lichen
    - - After a time lag, population of Prey decreases due to increased hunting from Predators
      - As the Predator's Prey (resource/realized niche) population depletes, the Predator Population also declines.
      - Availability of Prey Increases causing Predator to Increase
      - With fewer Predators, population of Prey is allowed to increase thus the cycle repeats and continues.
      - Benefits of Predation: Removes old/sick individuals as they are easier to catch. The remainder are healthier and have more survival advantage, thus they breed and form superior gene pool.
  - - - Stage 2: Exponential Growth Phase, the J Curve No real Limiting Factors + Favorable Abiotic Conditions + Lack of disease/predators = Population growth at an increasing rapid rate.
      - Stage 3: Transitional Phase Limiting Factors + Increased Competition + Increased Predation and Disease = Increases Mortality and Restricts Growth Rate
      - Stage 1: Lag Phase Population Low, with Low Birthrate. Few individuals to colonize the area.
      - Stage 4: Stationary Phase, the S Curve Population Growth Stabilizes. Limiting Factors restrict population to its Carrying Capacity. Changes in Abiotic Factors, Predation, Disease, and Limiting Factors causes population to Fluctuate around Carrying Capacity
      - 4 Stages of Carrying Capacity
- - - - Primary Producers are also known as Autographs: They lie at the bottom of the food chain (form the first trophic level), serving as food sources for animals. Primary producers are self-sufficient, they produce their own food. Ex. Algae
  - - - Heat energy is produced as Waste: During respiration large amounts of energy are dissipated as Heat, Increasing the Entropy in the ecosystem while enabling the organisms to maintain relatively low entropy / high organization.
  - - - Producer: can make their own food, as they use sunlight to make food and are called the basis of every ecosystem which helps the rest of the species through input of energy and new biomass. This happens through photosynthesis. Organisms besides that can do photosynthesis are Phytoplankton, responsible for the vast majority of primary production in the sea and 50% of oxygen.
        
        There exception of organisms that can make their own food, called Chemosynthetic Organisms that produce food without sunlight in deep water volcanoes
      - Consumer: feed on other organisms, they do not contain photosynthesis pigments so they cannot make their own food. They have to get energy, minerals and nutrients by eating other organisms. This makes them heterotrophs. Herbivores feed on autotrophs, carnivores on other heterotrophs and omnivores on both.
      - Decomposer: get their food from the breakdown of a dead organism matter. They break down tissue and release nutrients for absorption by other producers. Decomposers also improve the nutrient capacity in the soil by breaking down the organic material.
      - In accordance with the second law of thermodynamics, there is a tendency for numbers and quantities of biomass and energy to decrease along food chains; therefore the pyramids become narrower towards the apex.
        
        On average, ecological efficiency is only about 10%.
        Because ecological efficiency is so low, each trophic level has a successively smaller energy pool from which it can withdraw energy. This is why food webs have no more than four to five trophic levels. Beyond that, there is not enough energy to sustain predators
  - - - Advantage
        
        easy method of giving an overview
        
        good for comparing changes in population numbers over different times
        
        Disadvantage
        
        all organisms included regardless of their size
        
        numbers can be too great to represent accurately
    - - Pyramids of biomass can show greater quantities at higher trophic levels because they represent the biomass present at a given time, but there may be marked seasonal variations.
      - Advantage
        
        overcomes the problems of pyramids of numbers
        
        Disadvantage
        
        only uses samples from populations, so it’s impossible to measure biomass exactly
        
        organisms must be killed to measure dry mass
    - - Pyramids of productivity for entire ecosystems over a year always show a decrease along the food chain.
      - Advantage
        
        shows the actual energy transferred and allows for rate of production
        
        Disadvantages
        
        very difficult and complex to collect energy data as the rate of biomass production over time is required
- - - - Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) - The total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per time by Green Plants, this is only for Primary Producers - Fixed Energy gained from photosynthesis
    - - Net Primary Productivity (NPP) - The total gain in energy or biomass per unit area per time by Primary Producers after deducting losses due to respiration: NPP = GPP - Respiration
    - - Net secondary productivity (NSP) is calculated by subtracting respiratory losses from GSP. NSP = GSP - R.
  - - - Transfers:
        
        herbivores feeding on producers
        
        carnivores feeding on herbivores
        
        decomposers feeding on dead organic matter
        
        plants absorbing nitrates through their roots
        
        removal of metabolic waste
        
        Transformations:
        
        lightening transforms nitrogen in the atmosphere into NO3
        
        nitrogen-fixing bacteria transform nitrogen gas in the atmosphere into ammonium
        
        nitrifying bacteria transform ammonium into nitrite and nitrate
        
        denitrifying bacteria transform nitrates into nitrogen
        
        decomposers break down organic nitrogen into ammonia
        
        nitrogen from nitrates is use by plants to make proteins
    - - Phosphorus fertilizers: Human influences on the phosphorus cycle come mainly from the introduction and use of commercial synthetic fertilizers. Use of fertilizers mainly has affected the phosphorus and nitrogen cycles. Plants may not be able to utilize all of the phosphate fertilizer applied; as a consequence, much of it is lost from the land through the water run-off.
      - Mining of Fossil fuels: Humans have interfered with the carbon cycle where fossil fuels have been mined from the earth crust
      - Production of Sulphur dioxide: Human impact on the sulfur cycle is primarily in the production of sulfur dioxide (SO2) from industry (e.g. burning coal) and the internal combustion engine. Sulphur compounds play a big role in the climate system because they are important for the formation of clouds. Additionally, a lot of sulphur is brought into the air by volcanic eruptions. A strong eruption can emit particles up to the stratosphere hence leading to cooling down of the planet.
  - - - Key points: Almost all energy that drives processes on Earth comes from the Sun; this is called solar radiation and is made up of visible wavelengths (light) and those wavelengths that humans cannot see (ultraviolet and infrared); some 60% of this is intercepted by atmospheric gases and dust particles; nearly all the ultraviolet light is absorbed by ozone; most of the infrared light (heat) is absorbed by carbon dioxide, clouds and water vapor in the atmosphere; both ultraviolet and visible light energy (short wave) are converted to heat energy (long wave) (following the laws of thermodynamics); the systems of the biosphere are dependent on the amount of energy reaching the ground, not the amount reaching the outer atmosphere; this amount varies according to the time of day, the season, the amount of cloud cover and other factors; most of this energy is not used to power living systems, it is reflected from soil, water or vegetation or absorbed and re-radiated as heat; of the energy reaching the Earth's surface, about 35% is reflected back into space by ice, snow, water and land; some energy is absorbed and heats up the land and seas; of all the energy coming in, only about 1-4% of it is available to plants on the surface of the Earth; this energy is captured by green plants which convert light to chemical energy; then the chemical energy is transferred from one tropic level to the next.
    - - Not all solar radiation ends up being stored as biomass. Losses include:
        
        reflection from leaves
        
        light not coming in contact chloroplasts
        
        light of different wavelengths
        
        transmission of light through the leaf
        
        inefficiency of photosynthesis
  - - - Transfers:
      - herbivores feeding on producers
      - carnivores feeding on herbivores
      - decomposes feeding on dead organic matter
      - carbon dioxide from the atmosphere dissolving in rainwater.
      - Transformation:
      - photosynthesis converts inorganic material into organic matter
      - photosynthesis transforms carbon dioxide and water into glucose
      - respiration converts organic storage into inorganic matter
      - combustion transforms biomass into carbon dioxide nd water
      - fossilization transforms organic matter in dead organisms into fossil fuels
- - - - Aquatic - which are further subdivided into:
      - Freshwater: ponds and lakes, streams and rivers and wetlands such as bogs and swamps.
      - Marine: deep ocean, coral reefs, estuaries and mangrove swamps.
      - Forest – tropical rainforest, temperate forests and boreal or taiga.
      - Grassland – savanna and temperate.
      - Desert – hot, coastal and cold.
      - Tundra – arctic and alpine.
  - - - As substance gain heat energy, density decreases so particles rise
      - As you go up in altitude air cools, becomes more dense and falls back towards earth’s surface.
      - These convection currents drive the Earth’s wind patterns and affect the biomes.
      - The same phenomena drives ocean currents
  - - - towards the poles where it is cooler
      - higher up mountains where it is cooler
      - towards the equator where it is wetter
- - - - Tortoises with varying shell patterns
        
        Mockingbirds with distinct marks on their feathers
  - - - geographic isolation
        
        isolation caused by physical barriers due to continental drift or climatic change, etc.
        
        The Wallace line:
        an invisible line that goes between New Guinea and South East Asia - the western islands were once connected to the Asian continent and the other part to the Australian. This caused monkeys and kangaroos to wander over land bridges and evolve after the sea levels rose.
        
        Plate tectonics:
        the moving and forming of tectonic plates(earth's crust)
        
        Effects: The formation of mountains, lakes, islands, and oceans preserves unique species and created new ones.
        
        The separation of Australia caused the preservation of unique species: kangaroos, marsupials, eucalypts, monotremes
        Madagascar, an island located off the eastern African coast is the only place where lemurs live
        
        separation of continents > climatic variation > development of new habitats > species evolving to new habitats > increase in biodiversity
        
        reproductive isolation
        
        isolation caused by behavioral differences
        
        Peacocks:
        The more colorful the male peacock is, the more likely it is going to be preferred by female peacocks. Therefore, more male peacocks with this characteristic are able to mate more often and are able to pass down their genes to their offspring.
- - - - Habitat Diversity: the variety of niches in an ecosystem
        high habitat diversity: rainforest
        low habitat diversity: desert
        
        Genetic Diversity: the range of genetic material within a species. The larger the gene pool, the high the genetic diversity. A larger gene pool strengthens a species' resilience to disease.
        high genetic diversity: humans
        low genetic diversity: cheetahs
- - - - Weathering
- - - - Used by all living things. Essential for respiration. It is necessary for combustion or burning.
      - (without plants, oxygen levels would be 1000 times smaller)
    - - Dilutes oxygen and prevents rapid burning at the earth's surface. Living things need it to make proteins. Nitrogen cannot be used directly from the air. The Nitrogen Cycle is nature's way of supplying the needed nitrogen for living things
    - - Used in light bulbs
    - - Plants use it to make oxygen. Acts as a blanket and prevents the escape of heat into outer space. Scientists are afraid that the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil are adding more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere
    - - Essential for life processes. Also prevents heat loss from the earth
  - - - the layer just above the troposphere. It is approximately 40 kilometers thick and is composed mostly of dry stable air
    - - layer closest to the Earth's surface. It is a layer of air approximately 10 to 15 kilometers thick that
        is constantly in motion
  - - - More water vapour in the atmosphere means more cloud formation. More clouds lead to increased albedo of the earth.