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Effects of exercise on ApoE4 carriers - Coggle Diagram

- - - - reflecting changes in cell bodies, cell number, and the amount of myelination coating cellular axons
      - brain activation
        
        during these periods, increase in myelination and/or larger neuronal axon diameters --> allowing for faster processing of information along the axon of the brain cells (Herting & Keenan, 2019).
        
        the changes that occur both structurally and functionally during development are thought to contribute to a more productive and efficient brain, underlying the cognitive milestones that are seen from childhood to adulthood (e.g., improvements in cognitive abilities, such as working memory, attention, and inhibition (Casey et al., 2000)
- - - - high fitness children (9.6 years; shorter) < low fitness children (hillman, castelli & buck, 2005)
        
        fitness --> adolescent development of information processing
  - - - The strongest neurogenic stimulus = exercise (Van Praag, 2008)
        
        Wheel running in rodents results in a 3-4 fold or even greater increase in the production and survival of new neurons in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus [30]
        
        The robust effect of exercise on neurogenesis is maintained throughout life in rodents
        
        in mice that exercised coninuously from young to middle age, the normal age-related decline in cell genesis was significantly less than in their sedentary counterparts [51]
        
        in mice that started wheel running in middle age [52] or old age [37], new neuron number was elevated
    - - structural changes associated with exercise are reflected in improvements in synaptic plasticity in rodents that run (Van Praag, 2009)
        
        LTP enhanced in hippocampal tissue slices in denate gyrus : running > sedentary mice [63]
        
        individual new neurons have a transient increase in LTP amplitude and a decreased induction threshold [65, 66]
        
        An exercise-induced 3-4 fold increase in highly plastic cells in the dentate gyrus might explain the profound effect of physical activity on memory function
    - - The positive effects of physical activity extend to fine cell morphology (Van Praag, 2009)
        
        changes in spin size and quantity are associated with LTP induction and are considered to support changes in synaptic strength
      - Physical activity accelerates the maturation of dendritic spines in newborn neurons [74 in Van Praag, 2009]
    - - exercise influences brain vasculature (Van Praag, 2009)
        
        physical activity increases the proliferation of brain endothelial cells and angiogenesis throughout the brain [5]
        
        The growth factors insulin-like growth factor (IGF) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) have an important role in the angiogenic and neurogenic effects of exercise on the brain
        
        running enhances hippocampal IGF gene expression [75] and increases serum levels of both IGF [75] and VEGF [76]
    - - physical activity enhanced the glutamatergic system (Van Praag, 2009)
        
        change the function of neurotransmitter system in the brain
        
        upregulate genes related to synaptic plasticity
      - the neurotrophin BDNF is considered to be the most important factor upregulated by physical activity [5 in Van Praag, 2009]
        
        this has an important role in synaptic plasticity, cell genesis, growth and survival [5]
        
        There is a positive interaction between BDNF expression and serotonin
        
        serotonin receptor activation enhanced BDNF expression in hippocampal cells [97]
        
        BDNF treatment increased tryptophan hydroxylase expression in raphe nucleus neurons [98]
        
        with exercise, levels of BDNF mRNA in the hippocampus increased rapidly and remained elevated for weeks
        
        BDNFF protein levels increased with running [5]
    - - physical activity and aerobic fitness may also influence gray matter development in both the frontal and parietal regions in children and adolescents (Herting & Keenan, 2017)