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Problem Solving - Coggle Diagram
Problem Solving
The Information-Processing Approach
Problem Space
Newell & Simon
Problem solving involves a search
Initial state
Intermediate state/s
Goal state
Towers of Hanoi Problem
Operators
Rules specifying moves that are allowed/not
Info-processing allows us to take into account operators and other rules
Means-End Analysis
Reduce distance b/n initial and goal states
Create subgoals (intermediate states)
Problem Expression
The Mutilated Checkerboard Problem
Bread and butter = easiest to solve
Most clearly emphasises diff b/n adjoining squares
Blank = hardest to solve
Think-Aloud Protocol
See how problem representation shifts to eliminate obstacles
Creates a shift in problem element perception
Problem Solving
What is a problem?
Well-defined problems
Usually have a correct answer
Certain procedures ==> Solution
e.g. maths-based problems
Ill-defined problems
Don't necessarily have one 'correct' answer
Solution often unclear
e.g. occur in everyday life- social interactions
How do we solve problems?
Gestalt Approach
Problem mind representation
= how problem is presented to us
Success in solving is influenced by this
Reorganisation + Restructuring of problem representation
= Solving the problem!
Restructuring = changing the way we represent the problem
Insight
Related to restructuring
Eureka/"A-ha!" experience
Metcalfe & Wiebe (1980s)
Insight and non-insight problems
Obstacles to Problem Solving
Fixation/Functional Fixedness
Candle Problem
Two-strings problem
Situationally-Produced Mental Set
Water-Jug Problem
Situation influences approach to the problem
Mental Set
Preconceived idea about how to solve a problem
Irrelevant/Misleading Info
Especially when problem is complex
Can lead to incorrect answers
Assumptions
Relating to obstacles
Can prevent certain solutions
Using Analogies to Solve Problems
Analogical Problem Solving
Analogical transfer
Experience comes from exposure
I.e. how Miss Marple solves all her mysteries LOL
We create a bank of source problems!
The Match Sticks-Square Problem
Ravens Matrices
Fill the blank
Research- more practice = better at it
Source story/problem - The Fortress Story
Target story/problem - Duncker's Radiation Problem
Ill-defined
Desired goal state = relatively abstract
How ppl transfer learning from one situation to another
Requires 3 distinct steps
Notice analogous relationship
Map the corresponding parts of the story onto the problem
Surface Features
Elements that comprise the story
Superficial similarity
High surface similarities help
Structural features
More helpful in problem solving (usually)
Structural similarity
Underlying principles
Apply a parallel solution to the problem
Analogical Encoding
Comparing 2 cases that illustrate a principle
Gets participants to attend to structure features
Real World?
Analogical Paradox
Experiments tend to focus on surface features
In the real world, we use structural features more
In-vivo problem solving
Advantage: naturalistic settings
Disadvantage: time-consuming; lack of variable isolation and control
Experts vs Novices
Experts
Solve problems in their field faster and w/ greater accuracy + success
Recognise connections in their field for problems
Focus on deep structure
Spend more time analysing problems (to better understand)
No better than novices in problems outside their field
Novices
Focus on surface features
Start trying to solve the problem before seeing if they can understand it better
Creative Problem Solving
Factors Influencing Creativity
Design fixation
Creativity = implementing insights
Can inhibit problem-solving
Fixating on what
not
to do based on sample demo
Preconceptions and Brainstorming
Preconceptions can inhibit problem solving
Brainstorming encourages ppl to freely share and express ideas
Creative cognition
Preinventive forms
Ideas that precede creation of finished creative product
We are more creative w/ material we generate ourselves
Rapid, quick-fire making up new forms
Technique to train creative thinking
Creativity
Innovative thinking
Novel ideas
New connections b/n existing ideas
Divergent thinking
Open-ended
Allows for many potential 'solutions'
Convergent thinking
One correct answer
Assctd w/ well-defined problems