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Chapter 7, Chapter 8. The Cellular Basic Reproduction and Inheritance.,…

- - - - HYBRIDS: offspring of two different varieties
        
        CROSS: cross-fertilization itself is referred to as hybridization
    - - P GENERATION (p for parental)
        
        (hybrid offspring) F1 GENERATION
        
        self fertilize or fertilize each other, their offspring are the F2 GENERATION
        
        DIHYBRID CROSS: a cross between two organisms that are each heterozygous for two characters being followed
    - - ALLELES: alternative versions of a gene
      - HOMOZYGOUS: organism that has two identical alleles for a gene
      - HETEROZYGOUS: an organism that has two different alleles for a gene
        
        MONOHYBRID CROSS: a cross between two individuals that are heterozygous for one character
      - DOMINANT ALLELE: two alleles of inherited pair differ, then one determines the organism's appearance
      - RECESSIVE ALLELE: has no noticeable effects on the organism's appearance
    - - RULE OF MULTIPLICATION: it holds true for independent events in genetics as well as coin tosses
      - RULE OF ADDITION: the probability than an event can occur in two or more alternative ways can be determined from the sum of the separate probabilities of the alternatives
    - - CARRIERS: most people who have recessive disorders are born to normal parents who are both heterozygotes
        
        they are usually recessive allele for the disorder but are phenotypically normal
      - HUNTINGTON'S DISEASE: a degenerative disorder of the nervous system that usually does not appear until a person is about 35 to 45 years old
    - - COMPLETE DOMINANCE: the dominant allele has the same phenotypic effect whether present in one or two copies
      - INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE: the appearance of F1 hybrids falls between the phenotypes of the two parental varieties
  - - - TESTCROSS: mating between an individual of unknown genotype and homozygous recessive individual
  - - - AMNIOCENTESIS: performed between weeks 14 and 16 of pregnancy. needle is inserted through the abdomen and into the mother's uterus
      - CHORIONIC VILLUS SAMPLING (CVS): extracted a tiny sample of chorionic villus tissue from the placenta
    - - ULTRASOUND IMAGING: most common procedure using sound waves to produce a picture of the fetus
- - - - Photoautotrophs: organisms that can make their own energy using light and carbon dioxide via the process of photosynthesis.
      - Heterotrophs: Organisms that can't make their own food and consume plants or animals or decompose organic material
        
        Chlorophyll: This is where a leaf's green color comes from a light-absorbing pigment in the chloroplast that plays a central role in converting solar energy to chemical energy
        
        Mesophyll: The inner tissue of a leaf where the chloroplasts are concentrated.
        
        Stomata: Tiny openings or pores in plant tissue that allow for gas exchange. Stomata allow a plant to take in carbon dioxide, which is needed for photosynthesis
        
        Stroma: In the chloroplast theres an envelope of two membranes encloses an inner compartment which is filled with a thick fluid call stroma.
        
        Thylakoids: Suspended in the stroma is a system of inter-connected membrane sacs called thylakoids.
        
        Light reactions: Occur in the thylakoids include the steps that convert light energy to chemical energy and release O2.
        
        NADP+: An electron acceptor that functions alongside many enzymes to provide energy to the many reactions in a cell such as cellular respiration.
        
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- - - - Photon: A fixed quantity of energy and the shorter the wavelength of light the greater the energy of the photons.
      - Photosystem: found mainly in the thylakoid membranes chlorophyll molecules are clustered in photosystems. It is primarily involved in capturing light to cause a series of redox reactions.
- - - - Cellular respiration:
        
        SUGAR IS BROKEN DOWN TO CARBOM DIOXIDE AND WATER ARE REARRANGED
        
        CELL CAPTURES SOME OF RELEASED ENERGY TO MAKE ATP
        
        Uses O2
        
        Produces ATP
        
        Releases O2
    - - Enzyme:proteins that function as biological catalyst, increasing rate of reaction
        
        noncompetitive inhibitor: Does not enter the active site and binds to a site elsewhere on the enzyme
        
        Competitive inhibitor:Reduces an enzymes productivity by blocking substrate molecules from entering an active site
      - Active Site: region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction.
        
        Induced fit:When an enzyme binds to the appropriate substrate, subtle changes in the active site occur.
        
        Substrate: Specific reaction that an enzyme acts on
        
        Feedback inhibition: cellular control mechanism in which an enzyme's activity is inhibited by the enzyme's end product.
      - Cofactor: Many enzymes require nonproteins helpers called cofactors
        
        Coenzyme:If the "cofactor" is an organic molecule its called a coenzyme
- - - - Diploid re organisms with somatic cell contain pair of homologous chromosomes. the total #=23.
        
        Meiosis 2 the sister chromatics separate and result to four haploids cell
      - A cell with single chromosomes set is call Haploid cell has one member of each homologous pair.
    - - Meiosis 1 this where the haploid cells with duplicate chromosomes.
      - meiosis reduce the number of chromosomes numbers from diploid to haploid through PMAT1 and PMAT2.
      - Down syndrome. is the an extra copy of chromosome.21 making it 47 chromosomes. It is genetic disorder.
- - - - Meiosis and mitosis have vital similarities and differences.
    - - cell division can also be affected by the environmental factors through the laboratory culture.