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Botany Course MM, CH. 16 Genetics, CH.11 Energy Metabolism: Respiration,…

- - - - on each chromatid
      - goes to daughter nucleus
        
        during anaphase
- - - - Mitochondria
- - - - NADH
      - ATP
      - pyruvate
  - - - NADH
      - FADH2
    - - NADH
      - FADH2
      - ATP
      - CO2
- - - - forms H2O
        
        H+
      - last oxidizing agent
  - - - energy formed
    - - ATP formed
- - - - meristem produce second plant body
        
        herbaceous species
        
        cells located between
        
        metaxylem/metaphloem
        
        stop dividing
        
        differentiate into conducting tissues
        
        have matured
        
        vascular cambium arises
        
        1 more item...
        
        woody species
        
        cells located in postion
        
        never undergo cell cycle arrest
        
        continue to divide
        
        constitute fascicular cambium #
        
        don't mature
    - - parenchyma cells
        
        come out of cell cycle arrest
        
        resume mitosis
  - - - produces 2 elongate cells
        
        one becomes fusiform initial
        
        differentiates into cell of secondary xylem/phloem
- - - - storage of parenchyma increased
      - vascular cambia arise
  - - - trunks do not taper at tips
        
        does not grow radially
        
        is hard and woody
      - do not branch
      - all primary tissue
        
        vascular bundles
        
        contains primary xylem/phloem
        
        derived from apical meristem
      - vascular cambium never develops
        
        true wood doesn't occur
        
        secondary phloem doesn't occur
      - seedling
        
        no full set of leaves
        
        wide trunk
        
        becomes wider
        
        leaves increases
        
        produce adventitious roots
        
        adds extra vascular bundles
        
        establishment growth
        
        form of primary growth
- - - - fragmentation
        
        most common
        
        large spreading/vining plant
        
        grow several meters
        
        individual parts become self-sufficient
        
        establishing adventitious roots
        
        if middle portion dies
        
        ends become separate
        
        acts as individuals
        
        modifications improve efficiency
        
        cacti
        
        branches poorly attached to trunk
        
        plant breaks easily
        
        parts form roots
        
        become independent
        
        saxifrage, grass, pineapple
        
        plantlets form where flowers are
        
        small bulbs (bulbils)
        
        willows, thistles
        
        adventitious buds may grow out
        
        parent plant still alive
        
        small cluster of trees
        
        single individuals
        
        grove of aspens
- - - - gametes
        
        haploid sex cells
        
        sperms/eggs
        
        males produce sperm
        
        females produce eggs
        
        one sperm&egg brought together
        
        forms new diploid cell
        
        fertilized egg
        
        zygote
        
        grows become new individual
        
        is diploid
        
        resembles parents
        
        produce by meiosis
        
        diploids' sex organs produce
    - - trees, shrubs, herbs
        
        one phase of plant life cycle
        
        sporophyte phase/generation
        
        sporophytes always diploid
        
        have organs with cells
        
        capable undergoing meiosis
        
        results in haploid spores
        
        cannot undergo syngamy/fertilization
        
        undergoes mitosis
        
        grows into new haploid plant
        
        gametophyte
        
        3 more items...
        
        during sexual reproduction
        
        does not produce new diploid plant
        
        produces haploid plant
        
        vascular plants
        
        gameteophyte does not resemble diploid sporophyte
        
        tiny mass of cells
        
        2 more items...
        
        oogamy
        
        "male"/microgametophytes
        
        1 more item...
        
        "females"/megagameteophytes
        
        1 more item...
  - - - pedicel
        
        flower stalk
      - receptacle
        
        other flower parts attach
      - sepals, petals, stamens, carpels
        
        complete flowers
        
        only have some structures
        
        incomplete flowers
        
        sepals
        
        lowermost/outermost floral appendages
        
        modified leaves
        
        surround/enclose other flower parts
        
        thickest, toughest, waxiest
        
        protect flower bud
        
        bacterial/fungal spores
        
        maintains high humidity
        
        deters insect feeding
        
        nectar robbing insects/birds
        
        together called calyx
        
        petals #
        
        together make up corolla
        
        differ from leaves
        
        contain pigment
        
        fewer or no fibers
        
        tend to be thinner
        
        more delicately constructed
        
        are also "leaf-like"
        
        broad, flat, thin
        
        are important
        
        attract correct pollinators
        
        plant species has distinctive features
        
        size, shape, color
        
        arrangement of petals
        
        allows pollinators to recognize specific species
        
        attracting pollinators
        
        Stamen
        
        above the petals
        
        collectively known as androecium
        
        referred to as "male" parts
        
        produce pollen
        
        technically not male
        
        have two parts
        
        anther
        
        pollen is actually produced
        
        part of the sportophyte
        
        composed of diploid cells
        
        each anther
        
        1 more item...
        
        neighboring anther cells
        
        tapetum
        
        2 more items...
        
        filament
        
        Carpels
        
        consitute the gynoecium
        
        located at highest level on receptacle
        
        3 main parts
        
        ovary where megaspores are produced
        
        style elevates stigma
        
        stigma catches pollen grain
        
        flowers can have 0 to many
        
        usually are fused together
        
        called pistil
  - - - very small and simple
      - consists of at most 3 cells
        
        located within pollen wall
- - - - pollination of carpel by pollen
      - from same flower or another flower on same plant
      - same result as asexual reproduction
      - no possibilities of bringing new alleles
    - - results in new combinations of genes
        
        few may be adapted to either parent
- - - - quiescent center
        
        mitocally inactive central region
        
        nuclei do not become radioactive
        
        resistant to harmful agents
        
        radiation
        
        toxic chemicals
        
        reserve to healthy cells
  - - - begin to differentiate into pattern
    - - minerals penetrate deeply
  - - - root hairs grow outward
      - increases absorption of water/minerals
        
        transfer minerals to epidermis
        
        to vascular tissue
    - - allows oxygen to diffuse
        
        root from soil/stem
    - - tangential walls
      - thin primary walls
      - Casparian strips
        
        bands of altered walls
        
        controls types of minerals
        
        impermeable
    - - parenchyma cells
        
        between vascular tissue/endodermis
      - irregular region
      - lateral roots produced
  - - - passageways for absorption
      - slow to develop
    - - absorption of minerals
      - powerful absorption of water
- - - - smaller vacuoles
      - resume mitotic activity
        
        localized to few cells
        
        creates small root primordium
        
        organizes into root apical meristem
        
        pushes outward
        
        lateral root destroys
        
        cells of cortex
        
        epidermis
        
        swells into cortex
        
        endodermis may tear/crush
        
        undergo cell division
- - - - transport additional nutrients/water
        
        to stem
    - - become woody
        
        extremely strong supports
        
        permits branch to extend
    - - brace trunk from being blown over
  - - - uppermost portion contracts
        
        caused by cortex cells shape change
        
        shorten/expand radially
        
        simultaneously
        
        loses 1/2 to 2/3 of height
        
        vascular tissue buckle
        
        become undulate
        
        continue conducting
      - stem pulled downward
        
        kept at soil level
        
        bulbs buried deeper
  - - - endomycorrhizal
        
        fungal hyphae
        
        penetrate outermost root cortex
        
        pass through walls of cortex
        
        slender, threadlike cells
        
        invade cell
        
        do not break
        
        plasma membrane
        
        vacuole membrane
        
        inside cell
        
        branch repeatedly
        
        form arbuscule
        
        1 more item...
        
        fill with membranous vesicles
      - ectomycorrihizal
        
        woody forest plants
- - - - Lateral (branch) roots
        
        radicle
        
        fibrous root system
        
        radicle dies
      - Carbohydrate storage
    - - monocots & some eudicots
        
        eudicots are perennial
        
        undergo secondary growth
        
        increased quantity wood
        
        trunk
        
        roots
        
        monocots cannot undergo secondary growth
      - radicle dies during/after germination
      - root primordia
        
        grows out
        
        form 1st stages of fibrous root system
        
        more initiated in stem tissue
        
        adventitious roots
        
        increase absorptive
        
        increase transport capacities
  - - - no leaf axils/axillary buds
    - - growth in length
    - - growth discrete apical meristem
        
        longitudinal growth
      - elongate meristematic regions
      - embedded in solid matrix
        
        impossible to extend at once
    - - protects root apical meristem
        
        zone of elongation
        
        root hair zone
        
        new lateral roots
      - thick layer of cells
      - constantly worn away
        
        renewed by cell mulitplication
      - dictyosomes
        
        secrete complex polysaccharide
        
        mucigel
        
        lubricates passage of roots
        
        soil releases nutrient ions
        
        ions diffuse more rapidly
        
        rich in carbohydrates/amino acids
        
        rapid growth of soil bacteria
- - - - ADP
        
        Photophosphorylation
        
        Only occurs in chloroplast
        
        Substrate-level phosphorylation
        
        Occurs in all plant parts
        
        Oxidative phosphorylation
        
        Occurs in all plant parts
  - - - Electrons subtracted
      - Increases positive charge on atom
      - Contain lots of O
    - - Electrons added
      - Reduces positive charge on atom
      - Contains lots of H
    - - Oxidizing agents
      - Reducing agents
      - Redox potential
- - - - Electromagnetic radiation spectrum
        
        Gamma rays
        
        X-rays
        
        UV lights
        
        Infrared lights
        
        Microwaves
        
        Visible light
        
        Radio waves
      - Quantum
        
        Set of particles
        
        https://www.britannica.com/science/quantum]
      - Photons
        
        Set of waves
        
        https://www.universetoday.com/74027/what-are-photons/)
  - - - Take place in stroma
      - Mediated by enzymes
  - - - Anabolic reactions
      - Polysaccharides
      - Fats
- - - - Palisade parenchyma
      - Spongy mesophyll
  - - - PEP Carboxylase
      - Energy wasting process
  - - - Color of wavelengths
    - - Light intensity/brightness
    - - Hrs/day sunlight is available
- - - - Soft part of plant
    - - Mass of parenchyma cells
    - - Chlorenchyma
        
        Photosynthesis
        
        Numerous chloroplasts
        
        Thin walls
        
        Allows light to pass
        
        Allows CO2 to pass
      - Glandular cells
        
        Secretes nectar
        
        Fragrance
        
        Mucilage
        
        Resins
        
        Oils
        
        Few chloroplast
        
        Dictyosomes
        
        Endoplasmic Reticulum
        
        Transports
        
        Sugar
        
        Minerals
      - Transfer cells
        
        Mediates shortdistance transport
        
        Large plasma membrane
        
        Increase surface area
        
        Extensive knobs
        
        Ridges
        
        Other ingrowths
  - - - Exhibits plasticity
        
        Able to deform
        
        Pressure
        
        Tension
        
        Retain shape
    - - Long
      - Flexible
  - - - Lignified
      - Elastic
        
        Can be deformed
    - - Conducting
        
        Tracheids
        
        Long, narrowed tapered ends
        
        No perforations
        
        Dead at maturity
        
        All vascular plants
        
        Vessel elements
        
        Short, wide, perpendicular endwalls
        
        Dead at maturity
        
        1-2 perforations
        
        Found in flowering plants
      - Mechanical
        
        Long fibers
        
        Many are dead
        
        Others are alive
        
        Involved with storage
        
        Short sclereids
        
        More/less isodiametric
        
        Dead at maturity
        
        Acts brittle & inflexible
- - - - Alternate
      - Opposite
      - Decussate
      - Whorled
      - Spiral
      - Distichous
  - - - Leaf axil
        
        Axillary bud
        
        Mini shoot
      - Area above node
    - - Nodes
        
        Internodes
        
        Wide
        
        Intermediate
        
        Narrow
        
        Region between nodes
      - Where leaves attach
    - - Bud scales
        
        Small
        
        Corky
        
        Waxy
      - Protects bud
- - - - Cells stop dividing
      - Cells start elongating
      - Differentiating
        
        first tracheids
        
        vessel elements
        
        protoxylem
        
        Metaxylem
        
        protophloem
        
        metaphloem
  - - - early stages of epidermal cells
- - - - Conducts water & minerals
      - Tracheids
      - Vessel Elements
    - - Distributes sugars & minerals
      - Sieve Cells
        
        Albuminous Cells
      - Sieve tube members
        
        Companion Cells
  - - - Similar to cortex
    - - Primary xylem
    - - Primary phloem
        
        companion cells
        
        albuminous cells
        
        sieve elements
  - - - Guard cells #
      - Stomatal Pore
    - - Trichomes (hairs)
    - - Fungi
      - Bacteria
      - Insects
    - - Cutin
      - Cuticle
  - - - latex
      - mucilage
      - pitch (resin)
- - - - Soft part of plant
    - - Mass of parenchyma cells
    - - Chlorenchyma
        
        Photosynthesis
        
        Numerous chloroplasts
        
        Thin walls
        
        Allows light to pass
        
        Allows CO2 to pass
      - Glandular cells
        
        Secretes nectar
        
        Fragrance
        
        Mucilage
        
        Resins
        
        Oils
        
        Few chloroplast
        
        Dictyosomes
        
        Endoplasmic Reticulum
        
        Transports
        
        Sugar
        
        Minerals
      - Transfer cells
        
        Mediates shortdistance transport
        
        Large plasma membrane
        
        Increase surface area
        
        Extensive knobs
        
        Ridges
        
        Other ingrowths
  - - - Exhibits plasticity
        
        Able to deform
        
        Pressure
        
        Tension
        
        Retain shape
    - - Long
      - Flexible
  - - - Lignified
      - Elastic
        
        Can be deformed
    - - Conducting
        
        Tracheids
        
        Long, narrowed tapered ends
        
        No perforations
        
        Dead at maturity
        
        All vascular plants
        
        Vessel elements
        
        Short, wide, perpendicular endwalls
        
        Dead at maturity
        
        1-2 perforations
        
        Found in flowering plants
      - Mechanical
        
        Long fibers
        
        Many are dead
        
        Others are alive
        
        Involved with storage
        
        Short sclereids
        
        More/less isodiametric
        
        Dead at maturity
        
        Acts brittle & inflexible
- - - - Alternate
      - Opposite
      - Decussate
      - Whorled
      - Spiral
      - Distichous
  - - - Leaf axil
        
        Axillary bud
        
        Mini shoot
      - Area above node
    - - Nodes
        
        Internodes
        
        Wide
        
        Intermediate
        
        Narrow
        
        Region between nodes
      - Where leaves attach
    - - Bud scales
        
        Small
        
        Corky
        
        Waxy
      - Protects bud
- - - - Cells stop dividing
      - Cells start elongating
      - Differentiating
        
        first tracheids
        
        vessel elements
        
        protoxylem
        
        Metaxylem
        
        protophloem
        
        metaphloem
  - - - early stages of epidermal cells
- - - - Conducts water & minerals
      - Tracheids
      - Vessel Elements
    - - Distributes sugars & minerals
      - Sieve Cells
        
        Albuminous Cells
      - Sieve tube members
        
        Companion Cells
  - - - Similar to cortex
    - - Primary xylem
    - - Primary phloem
        
        companion cells
        
        albuminous cells
        
        sieve elements
  - - - Guard cells #
      - Stomatal Pore
    - - Trichomes (hairs)
    - - Fungi
      - Bacteria
      - Insects
    - - Cutin
      - Cuticle
  - - - latex
      - mucilage
      - pitch (resin)
- - - - Converts to carbohydrates
        
        light energy
        
        flat and wide leaf
        
        thin leaf
        
        thick layer of chlorenchyma
        
        Leaf blade (lamina)
        
        flat
        
        light-harvesting portion
        
        Dorsal surface
        
        blade's lower side
        
        Abaxial side
        
        large veins portrude
        
        Ventral surface
        
        upper side
        
        adaxial
        
        smooth
        
        Petiole
        
        aka stalk
        
        holds blade to light
        
        1 more item...
        
        long, thin, flexible
        
        1 more item...
        
        no petiole
        
        2 more items...
        
        aka petiolate
        
        Compound
        
        divided, individual parts
        
        leaflets
        
        2 more items...
        
        palmately compound
        
        1 more item...
        
        pinnately compound
        
        1 more item...
        
        Simple
        
        just one part
        
        deeply lobed
        
        one dominant midrib
- - - - water loss
    - - allows CO2 in
    - - allows CO2 in
    - - guard cells
      - trichomes
        
        glandular
        
        secrete stinging compounds
        
        prevents animals from eating
        
        makes chewing difficult for insects
        
        protects leaf-borne insects
        
        non glandular
        
        provide shade
        
        prevent rapid air movement
        
        slow water loss
    - - greater in lower epidermis
      - rarely any in upper epidermis
    - - retain water
      - make digestion difficult for fungi
      - prevents spores from sticking
      - allows spores to be washed off
  - - - main photosynthetic tissue
      - one layer thick
      - intense light 3-4 layers thick
    - - open, loose aerenchyma
      - permits CO2 to diffuse
  - - - lateral veins
        
        minor veins
        
        releasing water from xylem
        
        loading sugar in phloem
        
        must have large surface area
    - - many fibers
      - difficult for insects to chew
  - - - vascular bundles
    - - protect apical meristem
      - photosynthesis
      - usually die early
- - - - Portulacaceae
      - Aizoaceae
    - - Surface-to-volume
        
        cylindrical
        
        spherical
      - Water conservation
    - - few air spaces
        
        reduce surface area
        
        water loss through stomata
        
        more transparent
        
        light penetrates further
  - - - produce more sugars
      - limited sclerenchyma
    - - feasible
        
        resistant to animals
        
        fungi
        
        freezing temperatures
        
        UV light
      - extended lifetime
      - prolonged productivity
    - - very thick
      - was abundant on leaves
  - - - thick cuticle
      - epidermis & hypodermis have thick walls
    - - few forms
        
        needles
        
        pines
        
        firs
        
        spruces
    - - evergreens
      - bristlecone pine
      - juniper
- - - - protrusion that extends upwards
        
        increases thickness
        
        initiates lamina
        
        midrib
        
        2 small, thin wings
        
        meristematic
        
        enlarge lamina rapidly
      - grows rapidly
      - taller than apical meristem
      - consists of protoderm & ground meristem
        
        cells are meristematic
        
        dense cytoplasm
        
        small vacuoles
      - https://www.pnas.org/content/98/20/10981 Leaf Primordium
  - - - form leaf primordium #
    - - becomes broad
- - - - diffuse through easily
    - - cross differentially membrane
        
        have special protein channels
    - - highly polar
      - pass through all membranes
      - membrane has protein channels
        
        aquaporins
        
        rapid movement
  - - - Freely permeable
        
        allow all solutes
        
        little biological significance
      - completely permeable
        
        don't allow anything
        
        isolation barriers
      - differentially (selectively permeable)
        
        allow certain substances
        
        lipid/protein cell membranes
  - - - force molecules across membrane
      - a protein
        
        binds to molecule & ATP
        
        ATP splits into ADP/phospate
      - uses ATP
- - - - all the protoplasm
    - - wall & intercellular space
    - - guard cells shrink
      - little internal pressure
        
        in hydraulic equalibrium
    - - K ions transported into guard cells
        
        cannot leave because plasma membrane
        
        Guard Cells
        
        potassium pumping is possible
        
        diffusion is not
  - - - located along midrib
    - - adjust water potential & turgidity
    - - pressure in midrib cells
        
        causes blades to be appressed
        
        trap is closed
        
        trap opening
        
        potassium accumulated by motor cells
        
        water diffuses in
        
        motor cell turn turgid
  - - - outer surface
    - - inner surface
    - - pressed firmly against convultions
        
        larger surface area
        
        available room for molecular pumps
        
        high-volume transport
    - - glands secrete salt
      - pass nutrients to embyos
      - sugar loaded in/out phloem
- - - - can be heated
      - put under pressure
      - elevated
    - - cooling
      - reducing pressure
      - lowering elevation
  - - - if increases so does water potential
      - if decreases so does water potential
      - can be positive
        
        something is compressed
      - can be negative
        
        something is stretched
        
        water is under tension
    - - MPa or bars
      - 1 MPa = 10 bars
  - - - osmotic potential = 0.0 MPa
  - - - cell walls
      - membranes
      - soil particles
- - - - water & nutrients moved through phloem
        
        sources
        
        leaves dominant sources
        
        during spring and summer
        
        tubers, corms, wood
        
        early spring
        
        new leaves
        
        bark, parenchyma, fleshy taproots
        
        early spring
        
        new leaves
        
        cotyledons and endosperms
        
        embryo source during germination
      - membrane-bound molecular pumps
      - active transport #
  - - - cohesive
        
        water molecules strongly bound
        
        one molecule acts on neighboring ones
      - adhesive
        
        shell of water molecules
        
        cellulose
        
        enzymes
        
        DNA
        
        sugars
      - heavy
        
        lifting to top of tree
        
        great deal of energy
    - - cohesion-tension hypothesis
        
        water movement through xylem
        
        widely accepted model
      - transstomatal transpiration
        
        water loss
        
        stomatal pores open
        
        cuticle and waxes
      - transcuticular transpiration
        
        water loss through cuticle
        
        cuticle and waxes
      - cavitation
        
        water column breaking
        
        acts like broken cable
        
        molecules above cavitation
        
        draw rapidly upward
        
        molecules below cavitation
        
        rush downward
        
        embolism
        
        space between portions
        
        air bubble
        
        expands until encounters barrier
        
        pit membrane
        
        tracheid or vessel
        
        can never conduct water
    - - bulk water movement
        
        through xylem
      - water loss
        
        powered by atmosphere
      - CAM
        
        https://biologydictionary.net/cam-plants/
- - - - climate and soil
        
        climate
        
        critically important to all organisms
        
        most are restricted to certain regions
        
        temperature, rainfall, humidity, winds
        
        temperature
        
        bromeliads, aroids, orchids
        
        restricted to the tropics
        
        frost-free habitats
        
        tolerance range
        
        between high & low extremes
        
        ranges vary greatly from species to species
        
        some are extremely broad
        
        horizons
        
        A horizon
        
        uppermost
        
        zone of leaching
        
        litter and debris
        
        B horizon
        
        nutrients are washed ino this layer
        
        zone of deposition
        
        rich in nutrients
        
        contains humus and clay
        
        C horizon
        
        composed of parent rock and rock fragments
        
        soil factors
        
        formed by breakdown of rock
        
        pioneers
        
        first plants that invade
        
        no neighbors
        
        provide transpired humidity
        
        helps moderate wind
        
        temper the environment
        
        tolerate severe conditions
        
        soil is sandy
        
        little water holding capacity
        
        associated w/ nitrogen-fixing prokaryotes
        
        lichens contain cyanobacteria
        
        angiosperms have root nod
      - Latitude and Altitude
        
        latitudes contributes to abiotic environment
        
        equator: 12 hr long days
        
        no seasonal variation
        
        plants cannot measure season
        
        higher latitudes N/S
        
        summer days are longer
        
        longer winter nights
        
        Artic & Atlantic Circles
        
        mid-summer days are 24 hr
        
        mid-winter are 24 hr
        
        high altitudes on mountain tops
        
        high winds
        
        poor soil
        
        all the year is cold
        
        growing season is short
        
        intense UV light
        
        not fully shielded by ozone
        
        oxygen
        
        carbon dioxide
        
        water vapor
      - disturbances
        
        fires, landslides, snow avalanches and floods
        
        significant radical change
        
        affect the biotic factors directly
        
        eliminating all/many individuals
        
        altering soil
        
        little/no impact on abiotic factors
        
        climate
        
        latitude
        
        altitude
  - - - plant itself
        
        modifies the habitat
        
        beneficial
        
        detrimental
        
        neutral
        
        beech/oak forests
        
        produces a dense canopy
        
        heavily shaded forest floor
        
        few seedlings grow
        
        creates habitats aids successful reproduction
        
        pine forests
        
        more open but still shaded
        
        pine seedlings need full sunlight
        
        do not grow well below canopy of older pines
        
        modify habitat for continued success
      - other plant species
        
        mutualism
        
        beneficial for both organisms
        
        competition
        
        disadvantageous to both organisms
        
        2 populations do not grow well together
        
        limited supply of resources
  - - - winter area
      - summer area
      - migrations routes
    - - spores
      - pollen
      - fruits
      - seeds
      - vegetative propagules
    - - aspects of habitat that affect plants
      - all components are its habitat
- - - - determines health of plants
        
        random distribution
        
        no obvious, identifiable pattern
        
        no predictive value
        
        knowing one position does not let you predict another
        
        clumped distributions
        
        spacing between plants is small/large
        
        rarely average
        
        can result from many factors
        
        uniform distributions
        
        occurs in orchards/tree plantations
        
        evenly spaced
        
        not extremely common
      - photosynthesis
        
        medium level carbon dioxide
        
        increase amount level of light
        
        light is the limiting factor
        
        light intensity increases
        
        brighter light doesn't cause more rapid photosynthesis
        
        increase level of carbon dioxide
        
        carbon dioxide becomes limiting factor
      - any factor of ecosystem can be limiting
        
        water
        
        extreme temperature
        
        allelochemics
        
        plant of chemicals
        
        allelopathy
        
        inhibition
  - - - young, middle-aged, old individuals
        
        optimal conditions
        
        seeds do not germinate
        
        many seedlings die
        
        before able to reproduce
      - biotic potential
        
        intrinsic rate of natural increase
        
        number of offspring produced
        
        reproduce under ideal conditions
    - - limited individuals in population
      - symbolized by K
      - https://www.britannica.com/science/carrying-capacity
  - - - disturbance usually produces
      - selected species
        
        annuals/small shrubby perennials
    - - K-selected species
        
        face intense competition
        
        adaptations increase ability use scarce resources
        
        low light or soil strata in poor condition
- - - - distribution in relation to others
        
        life forms
        
        trees, shrubs, herbs
        
        defined by C. Raunkiaer
        
        which plants survives stressful seasons
        
        geophytes: bulbs, rhizomes
        
        phanerophytes: trees, vine
  - - - time span
        
        animals active at night (nocturnal)
        
        active during day (diurnal)
        
        plants have daily rhythms opening/closing
        
        change dramatically w/ season
        
        Spring
        
        renewed activity
        
        production of flowers
        
        new leaves
        
        Summer
        
        flower at distinct times (photoperiod)
        
        controlled by plant maturity
        
        adequate rainfall
        
        nothing is in bloom
        
        Autumn
        
        changes depend on ecosystem
        
        release seeds
  - - - coexist in an ecosystem
      - the climate stressful/mild
      - soil is rich/poor
      - tolerance ranges broad/narrow
    - - low number of species
      - few are adapted
    - - support abundance of species
      - most plants have tolerance range
      - include such climatic and soil conditions
  - - - primary producers
        
        autotrophs
        
        first step of food web
        
        energy and nutrient supply
        
        herbivores
        
        carnivores
        
        secondary consumers
        
        primary consumers
        
        secondary producers
      - decomposers
        
        break down remains
        
        bacteria
        
        fungi
- - - - individuals of the same species
      - do not strongly interact
      - community
        
        all populations together
        
        physical, nonliving environment
        
        ecosystem
        
        additional levels of interaction
        
        uncertain of the effects
      - rarely stable
        
        change more common
- - - - large areas more diverse
      - several distinct sizes
        
        Alpha diversity
        
        number of species or growth
        
        occurs at local, small site
        
        Beta diversity
        
        compares differences
        
        several small sites
        
        region should be the larger community
        
        Gamma diversity
        
        number of species within a region
    - - area and species richness
    - - most species in an area very rare
    - - species present
- - - - Tillandsia usneoides flowering plant
      - pineapple family
      - not a true moss
    - - Lycophytes
      - not mosses
      - slimy bright green "mosses
        
        Spirogyra
        
        green algae
    - - Bryonia
      - Alectoria
      - Usnea
      - reindeer moss
  - - - larger, more prominent generation
      - more familiar
        
        photosynthetic, perennial
        
        haploid phase
      - collects mineral nutrients
      - spread rapidly by asexual reproduction
    - - smaller, more temporary
      - very inconspicuous
      - produces very small
      - absorb minerals from gameteophytes
        
        always remain attached
      - little photosynthesis
        
        cannot support own growth/sporogenesis
  - - - thrive in microhabitats
        
        stone walls
        
        fences
        
        bare rock
- - - - thallose liverworts
        
        gametophyte stage initiated
        
        spores germinate
        
        small temporary protonematal phase
        
        liverwort protonemata
        
        never extensive/ramified
        
        as long lived as mosses
        
        apical cell established
        
        gametophore begins
        
        antheridiophore
        
        male gametophores of Marchantia
        
        produce umbrella shaped outgrowth
        
        archegoniophores
        
        also stalked
        
        apex set of radiating fingers
        
        project upward
        
        droop downward
      - leafy liverworts
        
        gametophyte stage initiated
        
        spores germinate
        
        small temporary protonematal phase
        
        liverwort protonemata
        
        never extensive/ramified
        
        as long lived as mosses
        
        apical cell established
        
        gametophore begins
        
        resemble moss-thin leaves
        
        slender stem
        
        two rounded lobes
        
        no midrib
        
        no conducting tissue
        
        three defined rows
        
        prostate liverworts
        
        shoot grows flat
        
        against substrate
        
        underside row of leaves is reduced
        
        may be completely suppressed
        
        could be replaced by rhizoids
  - - - calyptra-covered sporangium
        
        is globose
        
        while young
        
        bright green
        
        chlorophyllous
        
        no stomata
        
        sterile cells
        
        much thinner outer layer
        
        one cell thick
        
        lacks columella
      - seta
        
        extremely delicate
        
        composed of clear, thin-walled cells
        
        collapse quickly
        
        Marchantiales
        
        have no seta
      - a foot
- - - - small
      - megagametophytes
        
        six cells other than eggs
        
        synergids and antipodals
        
        degenerate after egg fertilized
        
        undergoes syngamy
      - offer little protection
      - offer little nourishment
      - zygote
        
        nutrients supplied by grandparent generation
        
        sporophyte
        
        endosperm formation
        
        supported by moss gametophytes
        
        undergoes transverse division
        
        basal cell
        
        small, bulbous tissue (foot)
        
        capsule
        
        upper cell, expand
        
        apical sporangium
        
        4 more items...
        
        outer layer of sterile cells
        
        inner column sterile cells (columella)
        
        bottom of archegonium
        
        absorbs sugar, minerals, water
        
        transfer cells, many species
  - - - tend to be large
      - bulk
        
        protects from short term fluctuations
        
        moisture availibility
        
        air humidity
        
        if air becomes dry
        
        seed plant stems won't die
        
        seed plant leaves won't die
  - - - leafy stems (gameteophytes)
      - moss plants grow close
      - others more open/loose
    - - grow as ribbons
      - submerged in rapid/flowing water
      - not homologous
    - - grow from apical meristem
      - contain apical cell
      - derivative cells subdivide
      - water conducted by capillary action
    - - hydroids
        
        innermost cortex
        
        conduct water
        
        dissolve minerals
        
        elongated cells lost cytoplasm when mature
        
        walls partially digested
        
        leptoids
        
        resemble sieve cells
        
        interconnections w/ adjacent cells
        
        lack nuclei at maturity
        
        retain cytoplasm
      - rhizoids
        
        small, multicellular, trichome-like
        
        penetrate surface of substrate
        
        only anchor stem
        
        do not absorb water/minerals
        
        lack chloroplasts
        
        have reddish walls
- - - - irregularly forming disk
    - - but other may be thin
      - chlorophyllous lamellae grow upward
      - https://www.britannica.com/plant/hornwort
    - - brittle
      - rather succulent
      - does not tolerate drying
  - - - above foot is meristem
      - continuously produces new sporangium tissues
        
        pushed upward
        
        grow, differentiate, mature, and die
        
        simultaneously being replaced
        
        by more cells
        
        from basal meristem
        
        long, horn-like cylinder
        
        1-2 cm long
        
        Phaeoceros
        
        Anthoceros
        
        up to 12 cm in others
        
        at the tip
        
        mature and open
        
        result of dehiscence
        
        two linear apertures
      - stomata
        
        has stomata
        
        Phaeoceros
        
        Anthoceros
        
        no stomata
        
        Dendroceros
        
        Notothylos
        
        Megaceros
    - - thick
      - up to six cells deep
      - chlorophyllous
    - - green, golden yellow, brown, black
      - when ready, will release
      - some species multicellular
  - - - or bare rocks
      - not often encounterd
      - 100-150 named species
        
        five or six genera
        
        Anthoceros
        
        Phaeoceros
    - - hornworts never contain oil bodies
      - liverworts always have oil bodies