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Botany Course Mind Map, transport processes, Genetics, structure of woody…

- - - - isolation barrier
        
        doesn't allow passage of anything
    - - allows all solutes to diffuse
    - - allows only certain substances to pass through
  - - - migrate through cytoplasm
        
        vesicle contents transferred into organelle
        
        fuse w/ other organelles
- - - - open stomatal pores
        
        unavoidably allow water loss
      - water diffuses from intercellular space to atmosphere
        
        transstomatal transpiration
      - transcuticular transport
        
        some water loss directly through cuticle
  - - - transpiration prevents heat stress in leaves
      - primary means of carrying nutrients upwards
  - - - interacts with many other molecules
    - - H2O molecules interact with other H2O molecules
  - - - space between water molecules drawn up from cavitation point
      - and molecules drawn down from cavitation point
    - - water column breaks
        
        air dry
        
        soil dry
- - - - flexing/ folding in response to stimuli
      - location of flex
        
        point petiole attaches to lamina or stem
        
        midrib
  - - - large surface area
        
        high volume transport
        
        found in:
        
        glands that secrete salt
        
        areas that pass nutrients to embryos
        
        regions sugar loaded into/out of phloem
        
        room for molecular pumps
- - - - ψ=ψπ+ψp+ψm
      - pressure potential (ψπ)
        
        measured in megapascal (MPa)
        
        water under pressure = pressure potential ^ = water potential ^
        
        pressure down = pressure potential down = water potential down
        
        when compressed pressure is positive
        
        when stretched pressure is negative
        
        effects that pressure has on water potential
      - osmotic potential (ψp)
        
        water interacts w solutes
        
        water interacts w solutes
        
        osmotic potential always neg
        
        effects that solutes have on water potential
      - matric potential (ψm)
        
        waters adhesion to non dissolved substances
        
        cell walls
        
        membranes
        
        soil particles
        
        adhesion decreases waters free energy
        
        matric potential always neg
        
        +ψ to -ψ
  - - - absorbing water until cell bursts
        
        cell walls strong enough to resist breakage
        
        cells grow rather than burst
        
        plant cells can never burst
    - - incipient plasmolysis
        
        protoplast lost enough water to pull from cell wall
      - plasomlyzed
        
        protoplast pulls completely from cell wall
        
        cell shrinks
      - cell loses water and shrinks
- - - - sugars
        
        sieve cells
        
        sieve tube members
        
        polymer trap mechanism
        
        phloem loaded by diffusing into conducting cells
        
        polymerized into polysaccharides
        
        cannot diffuse back out
      - STM/CC complex
        
        functional unit
        
        conducting cell
        
        one or several companion cells
      - mass transfer
        
        sugars/ nutrients transported per hour
        
        excludes water
      - specific mass transfer
        
        mass transfer divided by cross sectional area of phloem
      - sinks
        
        extremely divers
        
        p-protein
        
        seals phloem rupture
        
        protein plug
        
        too large to pass sieve area and forms a plug
        
        becomes tangled mass
        
        sits that receive transported phloem sap
        
        callose
        
        injury causes pressure loss
        
        callose precipitates into fflocculent mass
        
        stays in solution under pressure
    - - sites water/ nutrients are transported
        
        before new leaves
        
        sources are storage sites
        
        corms
        
        wood/bark parenchyma
        
        tubers
        
        fleshy taproot
        
        spring/ summer
        
        leaves are dominant sources
- - - - free nucleotides diffuse to regions of single stranded DNA
        
        pair w/base
        
        polymerized
        
        primer RNA
        
        act as substrates for DNA-synthesizing enzyme
        
        DNA polymerase
        
        10 nucleotides long
        
        ribonucleotides
      - two strands separate
        
        form replicon
        
        aka small bubble
    - - allow entry of replicating factors
  - - - ligated
  - - - anaphase
- - - - must not be too efficient or ineffective
        
        cause no variation or adaptation
    - - recognize
        
        loops
        
        other problems
        
        mismatches
        
        minimize # of errors that occur
    - - result in serious problems
  - - - gene code for protein active site is disrupted
        
        cannot function
    - - inactivate a gene
      - cause to be active wrong time/place
    - - nature
      - its extent
      - position
    - - gene code for protein so long
        
        cannot fold properly
    - - eliminate start codons
      - new codon
    - - greater effects
  - - - ultraviolet light
      - radiation
      - x-rays
      - certain chemicals
    - - enzymes cut & rejoin DNA
        
        repair processes
        
        foreign DNA incorporated
      - DNA piece added
    - - short regions of self-complementary sequence
        
        may form small loop
        
        shorter than should be
      - DNA piece lost
  - - - inversion
        
        DNA placed backwards
  - - - somatic mutations
- - - - coding portion portion of mRNA
        
        must have 300 codons
        
        each containing 3 nucleotides
      - consists of 300 amino acids
    - - polymorphic
        
        X1,X2,X3,X4
      - some altered protein structure
        
        some normal enzyme activity
        
        proper reaction carried out more slowly or not accurately controlled
  - - - if they breed
        
        F2 generation
      - offspring
      - F1
    - - RR or rr
        
        identical alleles for gene
    - - neither parents dominate other
    - - parents
    - - much simpler
    - - Rr
        
        two diff alleles for gene
  - - - gametes produced by homozygous recessive parent
        
        carry recessive allele
    - - useful & valuable
        
        progeny exactly like them
      - homozygous recessive selfed & pure
    - - difficult to know genotype
        
        unless shows recessive trait
  - - - instructive consequences
        
        sperm & eggs contain
        
        50% r
        
        50% R allele
        
        punnett square
        
        explains proportions
        
        one gamete in top and one on side
      - crossed w/plant w/same phenotype
      - produces three types F1
        
        Rr
        
        RR
        
        rr
      - plants own pollen fertilizes own eggs
  - - - controls other trait
- - - - hundreds-thousands of progeny
- - - - crossing over occurs between them
        
        during prophase I
        
        after homologous chromosomes paried
        
        synaptonemal complex formed
    - - greater possibility crossing over
  - - - anaphase
        
        homologous chromosomes separate from each other
      - align on metaphase plate
        
        chromosomes also pair with each other
      - each has two copies of each allele
    - - two chromatids seperate
        
        4 hapliod cells
        
        equal in numbers
    - - alleles move independently
  - - - physical spacing
      - 1% or centimorgan
      - approximately one million base pairs
    - - formed from crossing over for homologous chromosomes
      - first two
        
        parental type chromosomes
        
        like parents
      - formed from recombination alleles
      - last two are recombinant types
    - - do not undergo independent assortment
  - - - alleles for one gene move independently of alleles for other gene
    - - alleles for one gene chemically bound to alleles for other gene
        
        move together
- - - - fatal only if present in homozygouscondition
    - - rarely passed to offspring
    - - if effect occurs early
  - - - plastid inheritance
        
        variegation
        
        spots or sectors that diff colors on plant that otherwise green
        
        cell mixture of plastid types
      - alleles affecting chlorophyll synthesis
    - - Mendelian ratios not produced
      - phenotypes not easily recognized
    - - alleles both parents are transmitted equally to progeny
    - - zygote obtains all its plastids & mitochondrial genomes from maternal parents
      - aka maternal inheritance
  - - - tetraploid
        
        plants w/two or more sets of chromosomes
        
        polyploid
        
        can undergo meiosis
        
        are fertile
        
        perfectly healthy
    - - formed by duplication
        
        gene family
    - - chromosmes fail to disjoin
        
        one daughter cell receives none
        
        one daughter cell receives both copies
        
        survives
        
        tolerated in plants
        
        result in triploid zygote
      - change in chromosome # per nucleus
    - - sterile
        
        odd ploidy
        
        cannot undergo pairing of chromosomes during prophase I
      - triploid sporophyte develops
- - - - lenticels
        
        permits O2 to penetrate bark
    - - phellogen aka cork cambium
        
        cuboidal cells
        
        after division inner cell remains cork cambium
        
        phelloderm
        
        layer of parenchyma
        
        outer cell differentiates into cork cell
        
        periderm
        
        layers of cork cells
        
        phelloderm
        
        cork cambium
- - - - undergo periclinal divsion
      - produce short cells
        
        storage parenchyma
        
        gymnosperms
        
        albuminous cells
      - short and cuboidal
    - - long tapered cells
      - anticlinal walls
        
        perpendicular to cambium
        
        w/o cambial cells would be stretched and become non functional
      - periclinal wall
        
        parallel to cambium
      - produced elongated cells of wood
        
        phloem
        
        seive cells
        
        sieve tube members
        
        companion cells
        
        fibers
        
        xylem #
        
        vessel elements
        
        fibers
        
        tracheids
  - - - without horizontal pattern
    - - few advanced eudicot species
      - horizontal rows
- - - - contains tracheary elements
      - could contain fibers
        
        flexibility
        
        strength
      - conduction up/down stem/root
    - - rays
        
        store nutrients during dormancy
        
        conduct material over short distances radially
        
        two kinds
        
        procumbent cells
        
        upright cells
      - contains only parenchyma
    - - lots of fibers
      - all basal angiosperms
      - all eudicots
    - - few or no fibers
  - - - first wood formed
      - also called spring wlls
      - high proportion of wide vessels or tracheids
    - - also called summer wood
      - can have a lower proportion of vessels
      - made once cuticle thickens and transpiration is less
      - more fibers
    - - early and late wood
      - ring porous
        
        vessels in early wood
      - diffuse porous
        
        vessels throughout the year
  - - - freezing
      - winds
      - insects
      - tylosis
        
        bubbles of protoplasm into vessel
        
        forms plug in vessel
    - - lighter moister outer region
      - new layer formed each year
    - - dark center of log
      - dryer more fragrant
      - one annual ring
- - - - phloem rays
        
        storage
        
        only parenchyma cells
- - - - numerous vascular cambia arise
        
        around individual
        
        few sieve tubes
        
        some vessels
        
        large
      - storage of parenchyma increased
  - - - dragon trees
      - palms
      - joshua trees
      - secondary vascular bundles
        
        thick secondary walls
        
        develop into fibers
  - - - trunks do not taper at tips
      - do not branch
      - all primary tissue
        
        ground tissue
        
        vasular bundles
        
        derived from shoot apical meristem
        
        primary xylem
        
        primary phloem
- - - - before it dies out in older patches
- - - - handling time
        
        time taken to consume
      - prey dependent
        
        feeding rate increases
      - feeding rate
        
        how quick to find new prey
    - - N is prey individuals in a community
      - r is intrinsic growth rate
      - P is predator individuals
      - dN/dt is rate of prey pop change in time
    - - line indicating population stability
      - dN/dt = 0
      - prey and predatory coexist stably
    - - predator prey interaction becomes unstable
      - may lead to predator overexploit of prey
      - prey zero growth , isocline rises
      - both species will be lost
    - - inflection point
      - harvest just enough to determine the inflection
      - populations max per capita productivity
      - fixed effort harvesting
        
        alternative way to determine population health
      - fixed quota harvesting
        
        fisherman / hunters allowed to harvest particular amount
  - - - interference competition
        
        one organism restricts access to resources
        
        example: leaves blocking light to another
      - invasive species
        
        species increases from low to high population density
        
        even with resource competitors present
      - exploitation competition
        
        less available for other organisms
        
        organisms consume shared resource
  - - - omnivores
        
        eat plants and animals
        
        humans
      - vertebrate herbivores
        
        eat plants
    - - interaction between 3 factors:
        
        decision to attack individual
        
        probability that attacked prey is successfully eaten
        
        probability that particular prey is encountered
      - optimal diet model
        
        If high yield prey is scarce then, predator more successful by broadening its diet
        
        some prey always eaten/ others never eaten even if encountered
        
        1.predators prefer prey that yields the most energy/ handling time
        
        less profitable prey ignored if more profitable prey is available
- - - - reduce population of sea urchins
      - urchin grazing minimized
      - kelp spores allowed to germinate
      - extensive underwater forests
- - - - larger areas more diverse than smaller
        
        beta diversity - differences b/t several small sites in a larger region
        
        gamma diversity - number of species in region
        
        alpha beta diversity - local small site
    - - number of species in each abundance class
  - - - tropical regions have benign environments
        
        abundant rainfall
        
        hundreds of millions of years to adapt
        
        warm #
      - higher latitudes have more severe conditions
        
        freezing
        
        water stress
        
        only tens of millions of years to adapt
  - - - not enough trained specialists
      - impossible/ unnecessary to catalog every microbe
- - - - perennial
      - occuring in all parts of the world
      - in almost every environment
    - - leptoids
        
        resemble sieve cells
        
        lack nuclei
        
        retain cytoplasm
        
        elongated
      - majority of mosses lack hydroids and leptoids
        
        water conducted through capillary action along exterior stems
        
        form narrow spaces
        
        act as capillary channels
        
        leaves/ stems very small
        
        rhizoids
        
        locateed at base of stem
        
        small/ multicellular
        
        penetrate substrate surface
        
        only anchor system
        
        reddish walls
        
        lack chloroplasts
        
        dont absorb water/ minerals
      - hydroids
        
        innermost cortex cells
        
        conduct water/ dissolved minerals
        
        no cytoplasm
        
        elongated cells
        
        end walls partially digested
    - - gametophores
      - leafy stems
    - - sends out long chlorophyllous cell
        
        undergoes mitosis
        
        produces branched system of similar cells
        
        protonema
        
        resembles green algae
        
        numerous small chloroplasts
        
        entire network
      - begins when spore germinates
    - - gametophore
        
        all mosses oogamous
        
        produces gamerangia
  - - - called the foot
        
        interface w/ gametophore
        
        absorbs, sugars, minerals and water from gametophore
        
        upper cell grow by cell division
        
        expansion into a simple apical sporangium
        
        called the capsule
        
        operculum
        
        caplike lid
        
        apex of sporangium
        
        peristome teeth
        
        1 more item...
        
        seta
        
        narrow stalk
        
        between foot and sporangium
  - - - lack of conducting tissues
      - small size
      - several mechanisms compensate
        
        for inability of mosses to retain wate
        
        grow in permanently moist microhabitats
        
        tolerant of desiccation
        
        desiccated mosses resistant to high/low temperature
        
        and intense UV light
- - - - succulent but brittle
        
        lives less than 1 year
        
        after fertilization divides longitudinally
        
        winter annuals
- - - - thallose liverworts #
        
        flat ribbon like
        
        body
        
        aka thallus
        
        air pores
        
        no guard cells
        
        cannot be closed
        
        no stomata
        
        or heart shaped/ bilaterally symmetrical
      - growth of gametophore begins
        
        bisexual
        
        antheridia
        
        archegonia
        
        or unisex depending on species
        
        archegoniophores
        
        apex of radiating fingers
        
        antheridiophore
        
        umbrella shaped outgrowth
        
        male reproductive structure
      - leafy liverworts
        
        gametophore resembles moss
        
        two rounded lobes
        
        no midrib
  - - - seta
        
        clear thin walls
        
        collapse quickly
        
        extremely delicate
      - calyptra covered sporangium
        
        elators
        
        spring shaped walls
        
        uncoil pushing spores out
        
        single elongate cells
      - foot
- - - - vascular but no seeds
        
        ferns
        
        scouring rushes
        
        clubmosses
    - - has vascular tissue and seeds
        
        gymnosperms
        
        angiosperms
        
        cyads
    - - no vascular tissue or seeds
        
        liverworts
        
        hornworts
        
        mosses
- - - - surrounded by layers of sterile cells
        
        bodies = true parenchyma
        
        almost exclusively terrestrial
        
        many have stomata
        
        cuticle over much of their body
      - gametangia
      - sporangia
    - - heteromorphic generations
      - sporophyt and gametophyte differ structurally
- - - - can't have O2
    - - either way
  - - - needs O2
    - - 2 ATP
      - 2 pyruvate
      - 2 NADH
      - 2 H2O
    - - FAD+
      - ATP
      - NAD+
      - H2O
    - - FADH2
        
        electron transport chain
        
        products
        
        2 CO2
        
        6 NADH
        
        2 FADH2
        
        2 ATP
      - 6 NADH
      - 4 CO2
      - 2 ATP
  - - - no proton gradient
        
        no chemiosmosis
        
        Thrmogenic respiraton
        
        lots of heat
        
        no ATP produced #
  - - - 4&5-carbon sugars
        
        ribose-5-phosphate
        
        amino acids
        
        RNA
        
        DNA
  - - - Fatty acid
        
        Acetyl CoA
        
        B-oxidation
        
        NADH+ H+
        
        FADH2
        
        Krebs Cycle #
        
        Carbohydrates
      - Glycerol
  - - - glycolate
        
        peroxisomes
        
        glycine
        
        H2O
        
        CO2
        
        amino acids
        
        RNA
        
        DNA
    - - internal
        
        seed embyro matures
        
        decreased respiration
        
        dormant
        
        fruit matures
        
        large respiration increase
        
        endogenous hormones
      - external
        
        O2
        
        low demand #
        
        high demand #
        
        lots of rain
        
        flooded roots
        
        root hypoxia/ anoxia #
        
        Temp
        
        10ºc
        
        doubles
        
        5ºc
        
        slows down
        
        30ºc
        
        increases slowly
        
        40ºc
        
        slows greatly
- - - - toxic to yeast
        
        yeast dies
  - - - large # of enzymes that break down starch
    - - fewer carbs, starches, sugars
        
        lower calories
- - - - Acetyl CoA enteers CAC
      - length of fatty acid
    - - 4 molecules of TP synthesized .
      - 1-2 ATPs to initiate process
      - net result
        
        2 ATP/ every glucose fermented
    - - produce 2 ATP
    - - gycolysis
        
        2 NADH
        
        2 ATP
      - transported to mitochondria
      - up to 38 ATPs
- - - - RuBP carboxylase
        
        3-phosphoglycerate
        
        3-phosphoglycerate
        
        1,3-diphosphoglycerate
        
        3-phosphoglyceraldehyde
        
        NADP
        
        ADP
    - - anabolic reactions
        
        synthesis of polysaccharides
        
        gluconeogenesis
        
        methods of energy storage
        
        short term storage
        
        ATP/ NADH
        
        intermediate term storage
        
        glucose/ sucrose
        
        long tern storage
        
        starch
  - - - pigment absorbes photon
        
        activated
        
        ground state to excited state
      - pigment releases photon
        
        flourescence
      - types of pigments
        
        chlorophyll a
        
        hydrophobic
        
        critical pigment
        
        absorbs red and blue light
        
        accessory pigments
        
        chlorophyll b
        
        hydrophobic
        
        carotenoids
        
        absorb accessive light
        
        protect chlorophylls
        
        resonance
        
        transferring energy from accessory pigments to chlorophyll a
        
        antenna complex
        
        collection of 300:
        
        chlorophylls
        
        their proteins
        
        carotenoids
        
        reaction center
        
        where energy is transferred to
        
        different chlorophyll a
        
        passes e- to electron acceptor
      - measuring photochemical processes
        
        absorption spectrum
        
        wavelengths absorbed by pigments
        
        action spectrum
        
        most effective wavelengths
    - - electromagnetic radiation spectrum
        
        x-rays
        
        visible light
        
        gamma rays
        
        etc.
      - photons/ quanta
- - - - glycolysis
        
        2 ATP
      - Citric acid cylce
        
        2 ATP
    - - ADP phosphorylated to ATP
        
        oxidations w/ O2 in mitochonria
        
        about 32 ATP
    - - occurs in chloroplasts
  - - - gained electrons
      - reduced compounds
        
        usually has H atoms
      - reducing agents
        
        NADP+
        
        NAD+
    - - lost electrons
      - oxidized compounds
        
        usually has O atoms
      - oxidizing agents
        
        NADP
        
        NADPH
  - - - transfer e- over short distances
      - pick up 2 e-
        
        then bind to 2 protons
      - hydrocarbon tail
        
        makes them hydrophobic
        
        easily dissolve into lipid components
    - - can travel short distance down chloroplast membrane
      - contains copper
        
        oxidized
        
        2+ oxidation state
        
        picks up e-, reduced
        
        1+ oxidation state
    - - part of thylakoid membrane
      - contains heme --> cofactor
        
        holds iron atom
        
        2+ or 3+ oxidation state
      - carry e- short distance between membranes
- - - - colors of wavelengths
    - - light intensity
    - - photosynthesis rate = respiration rate
  - - - transported
      - released
      - absorbed
    - - plants water effeciancy
- - - - CO2
      - nitrates
      - H20
      - sulphates
    - - all green plants
      - cyanobacteria
      - photosynthetic bacteria
      - tissues
        
        chlorophyllous leaves/ stems
      - algae
      - seedlings exposed to light
  - - - multiple uses
        
        fuel
        
        carbohydrates
        
        proties
        
        lipids
        
        construction material
        
        carbon dioxide
      - can build polymers from
        
        fatty acids
        
        sugars
        
        amino acids
    - - wood
      - roots
        
        respire starch
      - flowers
- - - - glandular cells
        
        secrete:
        
        fragrances
        
        nectar
        
        mucilage
        
        etc.
      - transfer cells
        
        mediate short distance transport
        
        large scale molecular pumping
      - chlorenchyma
        
        involved in photosynthesis
        
        a lot of chlorplasts
      - die at maturity
        
        stamens
        
        fruits (pea pods)
  - - - elastic
      - can deform and retain shape
    - - mechanical
        
        fibers
        
        long
        
        flexible
        
        alive ones involved in storage
        
        many types are dead
        
        sclereids
        
        often dead at maturity
        
        more or less isodiametric
      - conducting
        
        tracheids
        
        long narrow w/ tapered ends
        
        no perferations
        
        dead at maturity
        
        found in all vascular plants
        
        vessel elements
        
        found in flowering plants
        
        short and wide w/ perpendicular end walls
        
        dead at maturity
        
        contain one or two perferations
        
        nonflowering plants:
        
        gymnosperms
        
        horsetails
        
        ferns
  - - - thick primarily in corners
      - thin in some areas
    - - Vines
- - - - where leaves are attached
    - - region between nodes
  - - - waxy
      - protect delicate organs inside
    - - extreme tip of each stem
  - - - leaves one per node
    - - leaves two per node
    - - leaves located in four rows
    - - three or more leaves per node
    - - leaves not aligned with their nearest neighbor
    - - leaves located in two rows only
  - - - horizontal stem allow plant to spread underground
      - irises
      - bamboo
    - - horizontal stem but grow for a short period
      - means of storing nutrients
      - potatoes
- - - - encrusts outer wall
      - makes wall impermeable to H2O
      - builds up layer called cuticle
      - inhibits entry of CO2 for photosynthesis
        
        stomatal pores #
        
        guard cells #
  - - - part of the primary plant body
    - - holds both xylem and phloem parallel
    - - vascular bundle of phloem
    - - region of parenchyma
  - - - conducts water and minerals
      - vessel elements
      - tracheids
    - - distributes sugar and minerals
      - sieve tube members
      - sieve cells
- - - - bark
      - wood
    - - meristems other that apical meristems
  - - - root apical meristems
      - shoot apical meristems
    - - herb:
        
        plant that never becomes woody or bark covered
  - - - eudicots
        
        broadleaf plants:
        
        maples
        
        roses
        
        asters
      - monocots
        
        catails
        
        lilies
        
        grasses
      - basal angiosperms
        
        magnolias
        
        waterlilies
        
        laurels
- - - - crassulaceae
        
        sedum
        
        kalanchoe
      - aizoaceae
        
        ice plant
      - portulacaceae
        
        lewisia
        
        portulaca
  - - - resistant
        
        freezing temperatures
        
        animals
        
        fungi
        
        ultraviolet light
      - hadrness
    - - limits sclerenchyma
        
        flexible
        
        edible
        
        soft
  - - - incapable of movement
        
        pitcher leaves
    - - move during capture
        
        sundew leaves
    - - insectivory
      - obtain nitrogen
  - - - needles
    - - thick cuticle
      - thick cell walls
      - contain unpalatable chemicals
- - - - two small flaps
    - - petiolate
    - - leaf base usually in petiole
        
        release enzymes
  - - - sheathing leaf base
  - - - veins are side by side
      - monocots
    - - netted pattern
        
        angiosperms
        
        eudicots
  - - - blade of just one part
    - - blade divided into several parts
- - - - lower portion of leaf
      - less stomata
      - loose aerenchyma
        
        CO2 diffusion
    - - upper side of leaf
      - more stomata
      - main photosynthetic tissue
      - usually one thick layer
  - - - conduction/ support
    - - conduction/ support
    - - loading sugar into phloem
      - release water from xylem
    - - fibers around vascular tissue
        
        bundle sheath extension
  - - - 1,3,5+ vascular bundles
    - - two small flaps
  - - - retain water
      - protection
      - cuticle
    - - sunken into epidermal cavities
    - - intrinsic rate of natural increase (biotic potential)
      - water loss
- - - - leaf primordium
        
        causes protrution
        
        causes:
        
        leaf meristem
        
        leaf protoderm
        
        meristematic differentiation
        
        primary phloem
        
        pro vascular tissue
        
        primary xylem
  - - - becomes a cylinder
      - encircles shoot apical meristem
      - hook like shape
- - - - files of cells push forward
        
        starch grains settle to lower side of cell
        
        detect gravity
      - simultaneously cells on edge
        
        grow towards the side
        
        proliferate
  - - - believed to be a reserve for healthy cells
      - resistant to harmful agents
      - mitotically inactive
      - if apical meristem/ root cap damage
        
        form new apical meristem
        
        quiescent center cells become active
  - - - pro-vascular tissue
        
        primary xylem/ phloem
      - ground tisse
        
        root cortex
      - protoderm
        
        epidermis
    - - cells enlarge
  - - - increase water absorption
    - - tangenital walls
        
        makes endodermis waterproof
        
        incrusted with lignin and suberin
        
        known as Casparian strips
        
        control minerals that enter xylem water stream
    - - initiate lateral roots
      - between vascular tissue and endodermis
  - - - only casparian strips
      - suspected slow development
- - - - penetrate soil rapidly once reached
        
        encase host tree
        
        host tree dies and rots away
        
        strangler fig becomes self supporting tree
  - - - stem is pulled downward
      - root surface become wrinkled
      - uppermost portions contract
  - - - root epidermis
      - water barrier
  - - - once on the ground the transport nutrients
      - act as stabilizers
    - - plate like
      - brace trunk
      - tall
  - - - used to produce new shoot in spring
    - - phlox
      - datura
      - daisies
    - - beats
      - carrots
      - celery
  - - - herbaceous plants
      - invade the cell
      - dont break vacuole/ plasma membrane
      - fungi hyphae penetrate root cortex to caspian strip
    - - fungi hyphae penetrate b/t root cortex cells
  - - - main growth limiting factor
    - - nitrogen fixing bacteria
        
        rhizobium
      - infection thread
        
        penetrates to root cortex
        
        bacteria enters cytoplasm
        
        proliferates and becomes known as a bacteriods
        
        plant and microbe benefit
        
        root nodule
        
        complex
        
        simple
    - - die and decompose = available to plants
      - prokaryotes us N2 in the air
- - - - branch roots
      - lateral roots
    - - develops from radicle
      - embryonic root
        
        turnips
        
        carrots
        
        beets
    - - mostly monocots #
      - a few eudicots
    - - increase absorptive and transport capacities
  - - - apical meristem #
        
        thick layer of cells
        
        protected by root cap
        
        secretes mucigel
        
        lubricates root through soil
        
        rich in carbohyderates
        
        rich in amino acids
        
        release nutrients from soil
        
        foster rapid growth of bacteria
        
        constantly worn away
        
        renewed by cell multiplication
      - zone of elongation
        
        cells undergo division and expansion
        
        just behind apical meristem
      - root hair zone
        
        behind zone of elongation
        
        epidermal cells extend out
        
        narrow trichomes
        
        root hairs
        
        greatly increases surface area
        
        form where root is not elongating
        
        penetrate small pores in soil
- - - - pushes outward
        
        breaking through endodermis
        
        forms root cap
        
        protoxylem/ protophloem differentiate
- - - - existing alleles decrease in frequency
      - new alleles increase in frequency
      - occurs constantly
    - - humans change frequency of gene pools
      - carried out in conjunction w/ artificial mutation
      - examples
        
        selective breeding of animals
        
        selective breeding of crops
    - - events in which organisms cant adapt
      - examples
        
        floods
        
        droughts
        
        volcanic eruption
      - alleles are destroyed
      - can be small or large
    - - conditions
        
        progeny must differ from each other in their alleles
        
        more offspring being produced than can be supported
      - most significant factor in gene pool changes
      - survival of the fittest
      - can only act on pre-existing alleles
      - does not cause mutations
- - - - controlled only by relative solubility
      - not postulated
      - formed at random
  - - - alcohols, sugars, amino acids, and nitrogenous bases
  - - - present in virtually all organisms
    - - generated ATP by fermentation w/ glycolysis
      - may have absorbed ATP
  - - - absorption by clay particles
      - formation of seaside pools at high tide
  - - - allowed the earth to rust
      - lower conc. of O2
    - - addition of O2 from photosynthesis
      - derived from early second atmosphere
  - - - heat
      - volcanos
      - uv and radiation
      - electricity
      - rainstorms
    - - chemosynthetic life
        
        lack of free molecular O2
        
        had basically no time limits
    - - second atmosphere
        
        produced by released gases from rock matrix
        
        replaced first atmosphere that was lost in space
        
        meteorites
      - reducing atmosphere
        
        early second atmosphere
        
        lack of molecular O2
        
        powerful reducing agents
- - - - euphorbias
      - cacti
  - - - seed dispersal
        
        caused by wind, flooding, and stream flow
        
        long distance dispersal
        
        migratory animals can disperse seeds
      - vegetative propagation
        
        reproduce vegetatively
        
        various alleles come together by gene flow
        
        small mobile pieces
      - pollen transfer
        
        carry one haploid genome
        
        all alleles are present in its pollen grains
        
        animal mediated pollination
        
        contributes to gene flow
        
        wind distributed pollen
        
        conifers
        
        grasses
        
        ragweed
    - - biological reproductive barriers
        
        prevents successful gene flow
        
        sympatric speciation
        
        2 groups become . reproductively isolated
        
        grow together
        
        differences in flower, color, shape, or fragrance
      - adaptive radiation
        
        special case of divergent evolution
        
        species rapidly diverge into new species
        
        genetic drift
        
        former individuals
        
        initial gene pool is extremely small #
        
        can occur in mainland properties
      - a-biological reproductive barriers
        
        prevents 2 populations from exchanging genes
        
        physical, nonliving feature
        
        ex. mountain ranges
        
        geographic speciation
        
        when speciation results
        
        allopatric
- - - - perennial
      - late maturity
      - fewer, larger seeds
      - many defenses
  - - - early maturity
      - annual
      - few mechanical or chemical differences
      - many small seeds
  - - - the number of people, other living organisms, or crops that a region can support without environmental degradation.
- - - - trees
      - shrubs
      - herbs
      - lifeforms
  - - - season
        
        spring
        
        late summer/ autumn
        
        dry/wet
      - day
        
        flowering
        
        nocturnal
        
        diurnal
      - decade
        
        gradual dramatic change
        
        succession
  - - - primary producers
      - primary consumers
      - secondary consumers
      - decomposers
- - - - fires
      - landslides
      - avalanches
      - floods
    - - A horizon
        
        uppermost zone
        
        debris
        
        AKA zone of leaching
        
        litter
      - B horizon
        
        zone of deposition
        
        humus
        
        clay
        
        nutrients
        
        area where materials from A horizon accumulate
      - pioneers
        
        first plants that invade a new soil
        
        must tolerate sever conditions
        
        changes the soil that their on
        
        some angiosperms
        
        lichens
      - C horizon
        
        parent rock
        
        rock fragments
        
        composed of:
    - - arctic and antarctic circles
        
        24 hours of daylight
        
        24 hours of darkness
      - intermediate and higher
        
        some sensitive to photoperiod
        
        perfect day length
      - equator
        
        days 12 hours long
        
        no seasonal variation
        
        plants cant measure season by photoperiod
    - - tolerance range
        
        moderate
        
        extreme
        
        difference in high low
      - components
        
        temperature
        
        rainfall
        
        humidity
        
        winds
  - - - transplant experiments
      - common garden
    - - beneficial
      - detrimental
      - neutral
    - - predation #
        
        one benefits while the other is harmed #
        
        browsing/ grazing
        
        herbivory
      - examples
        
        eukaryotes
        
        fungi
        
        prokaryotes
      - commensal relationships
        
        example
        
        birds nesting in trees
        
        cocklebur/ animals
        
        one benefit the other is harmed
      - mutualism #
        
        frugivores
        
        ants/ acacias
        
        both organisms benefit
    - - competition
        
        niche
        
        competitive exclusion
      - mutualism
- - - - unequal branching
      - one stem more vigorous
    - - main trunk
      - rather than a series of dichotomies
  - - - microphylls of zosterophyllophytes and lycophytes
      - megaphylls-leaves evolved from branch systems
        
        present in all seed plants
        
        ferns
        
        equisetophytes
        
        telome theory
        
        summarizes megaphyll evolution
        
        telomes
        
        last dichotomy
        
        ultimate twigs
        
        planation
        
        subdivisions of lateral branch align in plane
        
        webbing
        
        parenchyma develops between telomes
      - leaves of gametophytes of nonvascular plants
  - - - leptosporangiate ferns
        
        leaf gap
        
        small segment of vascular cylinder
        
        just parenchyma
      - leaves of ferns may be leathery or delicate
        
        one cell thick
        
        leaves are small (trichomanes)
        
        leaflets
        
        rachis
        
        upper layer of palisade #
        
        lower region of spongy mesophyll
        
        cluster of sporangia
        
        site of meiosis
        
        two types of sporangia
        
        eusporangium
        
        leptosporangia
        
        underside of leaf
    - - megaphyllous plants
        
        uniteed by 3 synapomorphies
        
        they have megaphylls
        
        30-kilobase inversion DNA
        
        their roots have exarch xylem
        
        monilophytes
        
        lignophytes
        
        woody plants
  - - - 15 extant species known
        
        scouring rushes
        
        all herbs
        
        no secondary growth
        
        sporanigosphore
        
        horsetails
      - calamitales
        
        true monopodial growth
- - - - Cooksonia a genus of extinct plants
        
        short cylinders
        
        equal dichotomous branching
        
        both branches
        
        cortex of parenchyma
        
        epidermis w/ cuticle
        
        simple bundle of xylem
        
        tracheids
        
        equal size / vigor
        
        simple upright stems
    - - protostele
        
        no pith
        
        solid mass of xylem
      - endarch protostele #
        
        metaxylem differentiates on outer edge
        
        protoxylem located in center
      - exarch protostele
        
        protoxylem on edges
        
        metaxylem located in center
      - sipphonostele
        
        evolved later
        
        pith is iin center
        
        as occurs in ferns/ seed plants
  - - - lateral sporangia
        
        opened transversely along top edge
      - exarch protostele
      - no secondary growth
      - enations
        
        outgrowths
        
        in asteroxylon contained stomata
        
        increased photosynthetic surface area
- - - - enations must have increased photosynthesis
      - lycophyll has been suggested
      - micro evolution from small enations
    - - cones of strobili
        
        necessary precondition for seed evolution
        
        compact groups of sporangia #
    - - lycopodium
        
        fairly common in forests
        
        200 living species
        
        small herbs w/ prostrate rhizomes
        
        short upright branches
        
        tropical regions to arctic
        
        spores germinate bisexual gametophytes
        
        produce:
        
        archegonia
        
        antheridia
      - selaginella
        
        resurrection plant, S. lepidophylla
        
        heterosporous
        
        ligule
        
        small flap of tissue
- - - - instead of meiotically
  - - - more complex
      - vascularized
      - larger
      - life cycle with alteration of isomorphic generation
  - - - multicellular sporangia
      - multicellular gametophyte