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Botany, Seed Plants Without Flowers (Gymnosperms), Genetics, Transport…

- - - - Megasporophylls grouped in "cones"
        
        Microspores moved by wind
        
        Dropped onto megasporangiate cone
        
        Produced 1st seed plants
  - - - Cordaitales
        
        Several descendant lines
        
        Cycads and Ginkgos
        
        Motile, swimming sperm
        
        Conifers and angiosperms
        
        Nonmotile sperm
  - - - Produced massive trees
  - - - Manoxylic wood
        
        Soft, spongy, parenchymatous
      - Large, compound leaves
      - Radially symmetrical seeds
    - - Pycnoxylic wood
        
        Hard, strong, little parenchyma
      - Small, simple leaves
      - Flattened seeds
        
        Bidirectionally symmetrical
- - - - Morphology
        
        Megaphyllous leaves
        
        Vascular cambium
        
        Radial longitudinal divisions
        
        Secondary xylem and phloem
        
        Elongate tracheids
        
        Circular bordered pits
        
        Rays
        
        Tall and uniseriate
        
        Cork cambium in some
        
        No seeds or ovules
        
        Megaspores shed
        
        Longitudinal slits
      - Two orders
        
        Aneurophytales
        
        Contains more relictual plants
        
        Vascular cambium
        
        Secondary growth
        
        Protostele
        
        No "leaves"
        
        Little webbing between branches
        
        Archaeopteridales
        
        Leaflets
        
        Spirally arranged simple leaves
        
        Few species with webbing
        
        Partial webbing
        
        A. macilenta
        
        Complete webbing
        
        A. halliana and A. obtusa
        
        Siphonostele
        
        Heterosporous
        
        No seeds
        
        Sporangia terminal on branches
        
        Megaspores released
        
        Trees
        
        Abundant wood
        
        Secondary phloem
      - Evolution of seeds
        
        Later species of progymnosperms
        
        Development of integument
        
        One megasporangium
        
        Became surrounded by telomes
        
        Fused together
        
        1 more item...
        
        Development of pollen chamber
        
        Micropyle
        
        Hole sperm swim through
        
        Fusion of telomes
        
        1 more item...
- - - - Characteristics
        
        Fern-like foliage
        
        Bore seeds
        
        Woody plants
      - Stem morphology
        
        Three-ribbed protostele
        
        Ring of vascular bundles
        
        Surrounded pith
        
        Long-lived vascular cambium
        
        Produced xylem and phloem
        
        Tracheids
        
        Longer/wider than progymnosperm's
        
        Rays
        
        Tall and many cells wide
        
        Cortex
        
        Inner cortex
        
        Secretory ducts
        
        Outer cortex
        
        Thick
        
        Radial plates of sclerenchyma
        
        Manoxylic wood
      - Leaves
        
        Similar to true ferns
        
        Large, compound, and planar
        
        Bore seeds
- - - - Leaves
        
        Perennial
        
        Veins
        
        Transfusion tissue
        
        Transfusion parenchyma
        
        Transfusion tracheids
        
        Facilitates transfer
        
        Mesophyll tissue outside endodermis
        
        Vascular tissues
        
        Simple needles or scales
      - Stems/wood
        
        Lack vessels
        
        Lack sieve tubes
        
        Rays
        
        Ray parenchyma
        
        Ray tracheids
        
        Lacks axial parenchyma
      - Shoots
        
        Two types
        
        Long shoots
        
        Have tiny, papery leaves
        
        Short shoots
        
        Have long needle leaves
      - Cones
        
        Simple cones
        
        Pollen cones
        
        Single short unbranched axis
        
        Bear microsporophylls
        
        Division creates microspores
        
        2 more items...
        
        Compound cones
        
        Seed cones
        
        Shoot with axillary buds
        
        Cone bracts
        
        Has axillary bud
        
        Bears megasporophylls
        
        Ovuliferous scale
        
        Fusion of megasporophylls
        
        In modern conifers
      - Reproduction
        
        One megaspore survives
        
        Development of megagametophyte
        
        2-3 archegonia form
        
        Each surround 1 large egg
        
        Conifer pollen arrives
        
        1 more item...
- - - - Pinnately compound leaves
      - Most are short
        
        Exception is Macrozamia
        
        Can reach 18m tall
      - Stout trunks
        
        Covered with leaf bases
        
        Bark
      - Stems
        
        Manoxylic wood
        
        Thick cortex
        
        Secretory ducts
    - - Dioecious
        
        Seed cones
        
        Pinnately compound megasporophylls
        
        Large, vascularized megasporangium
        
        Vascularized integument
        
        Pollen cones
        
        Spirally arranged microsporophylls
        
        Clusters of microsporangia
        
        Germination produces pollen tube
- - - - Cones
        
        Both microsporophylls and megasporophylls
      - Differentiation of stomatal complexes
- - - - Morphology
        
        Wood
        
        Lacks vessels/axial parenchyma Similar wood to conifers
        
        Leaves
        
        Dichotomously branched veins
        
        Broad
        
        Brilliant yellow in fall
        
        Stout trunk
        
        Many branches
      - Reproduction
        
        Dioecious and gymnospermous
        
        No cones
        
        Ovules in pairs
        
        At stalk ends
        
        Three-layered seed coat
        
        Pollen in catkin-like organ
        
        Two microsporangia each
- - - - About 40 species
        
        Reduced, scale-like leaves
        
        Native areas
        
        Desert regions
        
        Northern Mexico
        
        Southwestern U.S.
        
        Dry mountains
        
        South America
        
        Tough shrubs and bushes
    - - Only species in genus
        
        Only two leaves
        
        Grow perennially
        
        Stem from basal meristem
        
        Become increasingly longer
        
        Native areas
        
        Deserts of South Africa
        
        Short, wide stem
    - - 30 species
        
        Vines or small shrubs
        
        Broad leaves
        
        Native areas
        
        Tropical Africa
        
        The Amazon Basin
        
        Southeast Asia
  - - - Contains vessel elements
    - - Contain small bracts
      - Compound
    - - Compound
      - Extra tissue layers
        
        Surround ovules
- - - - DNA piece lost
    - - DNA piece added
    - - Smallest mutation
    - - DNA piece inserted backwards
  - - - Position Position of mutation intensifies effect
      - Extent
      - Nature
  - - - Ultraviolet light
      - Radation
      - X-rays
      - Transposable elements
        
        Change positions
        
        Insertion sequences
        
        Transposons
      - Man made mutagens
        
        Nitrous acid
- - - - Even ploidy level: fertile
      - Odd ploidy level: sterile
      - "Extra genes"
        
        Paralogs
        
        Gene family
    - - Change in chromosome #
  - - - Plastid/mitochondrion genome from mom
        
        Plastids
        
        Chlorophyll mutations
        
        Achlorophyllous
        
        Chlorophyllous
        
        Variegation
        
        White/red/orange spots
        
        Younger leaf, bigger spot
        
        Older leaf, smaller spot
        
        Mitochondria
        
        Mutations hard to recongnize
        
        Slows growth
        
        Embryo death (severe cases)
- - - - Genotype
        
        Types of alleles
      - Phenotype
        
        Expression of alleles
  - - - Two parents
        
        Genetically different
        
        Produces more fit offspring
    - - Identical offspring
        
        No change of fltness
- - - - Replicon
        
        Replication fork
        
        Primer RNA attaches
        
        DNA polymerase adds nucleotides
        
        Okazki fragments
        
        Ligated together
  - - - Nucleotides to 3' end
- - - - Parental generation
        
        F1 (first filial) generation
        
        F2 generation
    - - Homozygous
        
        Two identical alleles
      - Heterozygous
        
        Two different alleles
    - - No dominant trait
        
        Heterozygous phenotype different
    - - Self-fertilized
        
        Or by similar-genetype plant
      - Selfing heterozygote
        
        1:2:1 genotype ratio
        
        Explained in Punnet square
    - - Dominant trait
      - Recessive trait
      - 3:1 phenotype ratio
    - - Determines genotype
        
        Heterozygous or homozygous dominant
    - - Gene in multiple forms
        
        X1, X2, X3, etc.
- - - - Genes on same chromosome
        
        Linkage groups
      - Crossing over
        
        Recombinant chromosomes
        
        % proportional to spacing
        
        1% = map unit
        
        Parental type chromosomes
    - - Genes on separate chromosomes
        
        Move independent
      - Heterozygous cross
        
        9:3:3:1 phenotype ratio
        
        9: dominant for both
        
        3: dominant 1st, recessive 2nd
        
        3: recessive 1st, dominant 2nd
        
        1: recessive both
      - Crossing over
        
        Genes far apart
- - - - Several metabolic pathways
        
        Multiple enzymes
        
        Mutations not severe
        
        One controlling enzyme
        
        Mutation affects all traits
        
        Pleiotriopic effects
- - - - Strong interaction between H2O
    - - Interaction with other substances
    - - Lifting requires energy
  - - - Pulls water upward
    - - Puts tension on molecules
        
        Pressure potential negative
    - - Hinders water movement
        
        0.2 MPa difference
        
        Leaf more negative
        
        Root more positive
  - - - Embolism
        
        Tracheids
        
        Only one tracheid affected
        
        Vessel elements
        
        Entire vessel at risk
        
        Spreads through perforations
  - - - Intercellular spaces to air
    - - Cuticle to air
  - - - Factors that close/open stomata
        
        Light and CO2
        
        Abscisic acid
- - - - Selectively Permeable
        
        Diffusion of certain substances
        
        Lipid/protein cell membranes
        
        Protein channels
        
        Aquaporins
    - - No diffusion/movement
        
        Isolation barriers
    - - Diffusion of all substances
  - - - Use ATP
  - - - High concentration to low
        
        Osmosis
- - - - Potassium pumping
        
        K+ into guard cells
        
        Water potential more negative
        
        Water swells guard cells
        
        Guard cells open
        
        K+ out of guard cells
        
        Water potential more positive
        
        Water flows out
        
        Guard cells close
  - - - Controls flexing and folding
  - - - Many outgrowths inner surface
        
        More molecular pumps
        
        High-volume transport
  - - - Apoplast
- - - - Allow shoot growth upright
      - Channels nutrients
        
        Rapid growth of sites
  - - - Distance <= few cell diameters
- - - - Effect of nondissolved structures
        
        Always negative
        
        Very small effect
        
        Usually ignored
    - - Effect of pressure
        
        Measured in megapascals
        
        Positive or negative
        
        Increases with more pressure
        
        Decreases with less pressure
    - - Effect of solutes
        
        Always negative
        
        No solutes = 0.0 MPa
        
        Number of particles
  - - - Extreme cases
        
        Incipient plasmolysis
        
        Water loss
        
        Protoplast pulls from wall
- - - - Runoff/sewage
        
        Algae growth and death
        
        Decomposition by bacteria
        
        Eutrophication
      - Salt
        
        Oceans
        
        Ratio of salt changes
        
        Affects many ecosystems
  - - - Rain
      - Hail
      - Dew
      - Frost/Snow
      - Fog
      - Humidity
- - - - Mass Transfer
        
        Sugars transported/hour
        
        Specific mass transfer
      - Sites of transport (loading)
        
        Actively transported
        
        Sieve elements
        
        Polymer trap mechanism
        
        STM/CC complex
      - Phloem sap
        
        Sieve element protoplasm
        
        Transported through sieve pores
    - - Receiving (unloading) sites
        
        Storage organs
        
        Sugars actively unloaded
        
        Water diffusion outward
    - - P-protein
        
        Near sieve inner membrane
        
        Forms P-protein plug
      - Callose
        
        Pressure drop
        
        Callose joins P-protein
- - - - Between metaxylem and metaphloem
      - Forms new xylem/phloem
    - - Between vascular bundles
      - Forms new parenchyma
  - - - Short vertical rows
        
        Biseriate
        
        Muiltiseriate
        
        Uniseriate
    - - Storied cambium
        
        Regular horizontal rows
      - Nonstoried cambium
        
        Irregular patterns
  - - - Parallel to cambium
        
        Produce elongate wood cells
        
        Phloem
        
        Xylem
    - - Perpendicular to cambium
        
        Produce more cambial cells
  - - - Produce short cells
        
        Parenchyma cells
        
        Albuminous cells in gymnosperms
- - - - Greater transport capacity
    - - Increased number of leaves/roots
- - - - Late Wood
        
        Summer Wood
        
        Typically less vessels
        
        Fibers
      - Early Wood
        
        Spring Wood
        
        Ring porous
        
        Wide vessels or tracheids
      - Alternative arrangement
        
        Vessels all growing season
        
        Diffuse porous
  - - - Dark
      - Center of tree
        
        Becomes wider overtime
    - - Lighter
      - Outer region of tree
        
        Stays same thickness
    - - Vessels/tracheids die
        
        Adjacent parenchyma form tylosis
        
        Parenchyma dies
  - - - Develops from fusiform initials
        
        Contains tracheary elements
        
        Fibers
        
        Axial xylem parenchyma
    - - Develops from ray initials
        
        Rays
        
        Upright Cells
        
        Procumbent Cells
  - - - Upper side of branch
    - - Underside of branch
- - - - Sieve cells
        
        Companion cells
        
        Sieve tube members
      - Fibers
      - Nonconducting parenchyma
  - - - Parenchyma cells
- - - - Oxygen diffusion
      - Protrude outward
  - - - Many places to arise
        
        Cortex
        
        Primary phloem
        
        Epidermis
        
        Secondary phloem
  - - - Phellogen
        
        Cuboidal cells
        
        Division and differentiation
        
        Cork cells
        
        Phellem cells
        
        Phelloderm
    - - Phellem
      - Phelloderm
      - Phellogen
    - - Outer bark
        
        Outside innermost cork cambium
      - Inner bark
        
        Inside innermost cork cambium
- - - - Small rays of sclerenchyma
- - - - Multiple xylem/phloem layers
    - - Two cambium sectors active
      - Two cambium sectors inactive
    - - Multiple vascular cambia
        
        Forms around individual vessel(s)
    - - Secondary vascular bundles
  - - - Vascular bundles added
        
        Establishment growth
- - - - Flower parts
      - Gland cells
- - - - Genome
      - Chromosome
        
        Histones
        
        Centromere
        
        Cohesin
        
        Telomere
        
        Duplicated chromosome
        
        Two chromatids
      - Differentiation
        
        Endoreduplication
        
        Gene amplification
  - - - Spindle microtubules synthesized
      - Proteins produced
        
        Break down nuclear envelope
        
        Process chromosomes
  - - - Synthesis of nucleotides
- - - - Metaphase
        
        Chromosomes align along middle
        
        Metaphase plate
        
        Separase digests cohesin
        
        Sister chromatids are freed
      - Anaphase
        
        Chromosomes separated
        
        Pulled to opposite ends
      - Prophase
        
        Chromosome condensation
        
        Breakdown of nuclear envelope/nucleoulus
        
        Formation of spindle
      - Telophase
        
        Opposite of prophase
        
        Nuclear envelope/nucleoli reform
        
        Spindle disappears
        
        Chromosomes uncoil
      - Cytokinesis
        
        Cell plate
        
        Phragmoplast
        
        Vesicle
        
        Walls
        
        Phragmosome
        
        Vacuole division
  - - - Gamete cells
        
        Haploid
    - - Prophase I
        
        Similar to Mitosis Prophase
        
        5 stages
        
        Pachytene
        
        Crossing-over
        
        Diplotene
        
        Homologs begin to untangle
        
        Zygotene
        
        Synapsis
        
        Diakinesis
        
        Homologs untangle completely
        
        Leptotene
        
        Chromosomes condense
      - Metaphase I
        
        Alignment in cell's center
      - Anaphase I
        
        Homologous chromosomes separate
        
        Nuclei are haploid
      - Telephase I
        
        Interkinesis
        
        Does not always occur
    - - Metaphase II
        
        Chromosomes align in middle
      - Anaphase II
        
        Chromosomes separate
      - Prophase II
        
        Occurs if telophase I does
      - Telophase II
        
        New nuclei form
        
        One chromatid per chromosome
        
        Haploid
  - - - Division of nucleus
        
        Mitosis
        
        Meiosis
    - - Division of cytoplasm
- - - - Coenocyte
  - - - Results in tetranucleate cell
    - - Two small haploid nuclei
      - Two large triploid nuclei
- - - - Gaps develop
        
        Microtubules pass through nucleus
      - Chromosomes remain condensed
        
        Occurs in dinoflagellates
  - - - Cleavage furrow
    - - Phragmoplast forms
        
        Nuclear envelope broke down
      - Phycoplast forms
        
        Nuclear envelope intact
- - - - Daughter DNA on membrane
        
        DNA pulled apart
  - - - Pinches in two
        
        Cross wall splits
- - - - Pros
        
        Isolated individuals can reproduce
        
        Adapted as much as parent
        
        Rapid colonization possible
        
        Do not need partner
      - Cons
        
        Changes affect whole population
        
        Accidents kill all individuals
        
        No new genes
        
        Don't become better adapted
  - - - Pros
        
        Some offspring more adapted
        
        Accidents don't kill all individuals
        
        Genetic diversity
        
        Can colonize different sites
      - Cons
        
        Requires partner
        
        Pollen must be moved
        
        Isolated individuals cannot reproduce
        
        Rapid colonization not possible
  - - - Spread seeds far
      - Colonize site fast
      - Can spread rapidly asexually
      - Allow for genetic diversity
- - - - Fragmentation
        
        One of most common
        
        Cacti
        
        Branches poorly attached
        
        Break off easily
        
        Form roots
        
        Become independent
        
        Saxifrage, grass, pineapple
        
        Plantlets instead of flowers
        
        Bulbils
        
        Large spreading/vining plants
        
        Fragments of plant "separate"
        
        Become self-sufficient
        
        Develop adventitious roots
- - - - Four flower appendages
        
        Petals
        
        Colorful and "leaf-like"
        
        Attract correct pollinators
        
        Distinctive patterns
        
        Color
        
        Petal arrangement
        
        Shape
        
        Size
        
        Collectively called corolla
        
        Many with UV-absorbing pigments
        
        Create patterns insects can see
        
        Stamens
        
        Produce pollen spores
        
        Two parts
        
        Filament
        
        Stalk
        
        Anther
        
        Microsporocytes
        
        1 more item...
        
        Tapetum
        
        1 more item...
        
        Pollen grain structure
        
        Outer layer
        
        Exine
        
        1 more item...
        
        Consists of sporopollenin
        
        2 more items...
        
        Inner layer
        
        Intine
        
        Composed of cellulose
        
        Collectively called androecium
        
        Sepals
        
        Modified leaves
        
        Surround/enclose other parts
        
        Protect growing flower bud
        
        Deter bacterial/fungal spores
        
        Maintain high humidity
        
        Deter insect feeding
        
        Block nectar-robbing organisms
        
        Collectively called calyx
        
        Lowermost and outermost part
        
        Thickest, toughest, waxiest part
        
        Carpels
        
        Produce megaspores
        
        Collectively called gynoecium
        
        Ovary structure
        
        Placentae
        
        Tissue that bear ovules
        
        Ovules
        
        Funiculus
        
        1 more item...
        
        Nucellus
        
        3 more items...
        
        Three main parts
        
        Style
        
        Stalk
        
        Elevates stigma
        
        Ovary
        
        Produces megaspores
        
        Stigma
        
        Catch pollen grains
      - Characteristics
        
        No secondary growth
        
        Pedicel
        
        Flower stalk
        
        Receptacle
        
        Axis
        
        Other flower parts attached
    - - Alteration of heteromorphic generations
        
        Gametophyte generation
        
        Gametophytes
        
        Produce gametes
        
        Microgametes
        
        Sperm cells
        
        Megagametes
        
        Egg cells
        
        Two types
        
        Microgametophytes
        
        Grown from microspores
        
        Megagametophytes
        
        Grown from megaspores
        
        Haploid
        
        Sporophyte generation
        
        Sporophytes
        
        Have organs
        
        In flowers in angiosperms
        
        Produce haploid spores
        
        Undergo mitosis
        
        Grows into gametophyte
        
        Diploid
    - - Microgametophyte
        
        Grown from microspores
        
        Angiosperms: only 3 cells
        
        One vegetative cell
        
        Generative cell
        
        Divides into 2 sperm cells
        
        Landing on a stigma
        
        Pollen grain germinates
        
        Produces pollen tube (microgametophyte)
        
        Grows downward through style
        
        1 more item...
      - Megagametophyte
        
        Grown from surviving megaspore
        
        Nucleus has 3 mitotic divisions
        
        Eight haploid nuclei
        
        Embryo sac
        
        Multinucleate megagametophyte
        
        Nuclei migrate
        
        Three at each end
        
        Two in center
        
        Megagametophyte with 7 cells
        
        3 more items...
    - - Syngamy of sperm and egg
        
        Plasmogamy
        
        Fusion of gamete protoplasts
        
        Most inherited from ovule parent
        
        Karyogamy
        
        Fusion of gamete nuclei
      - Process
        
        Pollen tube enters synergid
        
        Pollen tube tip bursts
        
        Sperm cells released
        
        Migrates through synergid
        
        Loses most of protoplasm
        
        1 more item...
      - Double fertilization
        
        2nd sperm in angiosperms
        
        Migrates to central cell
        
        Karyogamy with polar nuclei
        
        Triploid endosperm nucleus
        
        Undergoes rapid division
        
        1 more item...
    - - Development of embryo
        
        Zygote small cell cluster
        
        Some becomes embryo proper
        
        Others become suspensor
        
        Pushes embryo into endosperm
        
        Later crushed by embryo
        
        End of suspensor divides
        
        Forms embryo
      - Stages of embryo
        
        Globular stage
        
        Arranged as small sphere
        
        End of embryo reforms
        
        Initiates two primordia
        
        Grow into cotyledons
        
        Monocots: one cotyledon
        
        Dicots: two cotyledons
        
        Torpedo stage
        
        Shaped as elongate cylinder
        
        Short axis established
        
        Radicle
        
        Embryonic root
        
        Epicotyl
        
        Embryonic stem
        
        Hypocotyl
        
        Root/shoot junction
      - Seed development
        
        Mature embryo
        
        Quiescent and partly dehydrated
        
        Cotyledon(s)
        
        Basal angiosperms/eudicots
        
        Store nutrients
        
        Becomes thick and large
        
        Endosperm shrinks or leaves
        
        Exalbuminous seeds
        
        Monocots
        
        Digestive/absorptive tissue
        
        Germination only
        
        Remains small
        
        Endosperm remains present
        
        Albuminous seeds
        
        Integuments become seed coat
    - - Fruit develops from ovary
        
        Pericarp
        
        Entire fruit wall
        
        Usually three layers
        
        Exocarp
        
        Outer layer
        
        Skin or peel
        
        Mesocarp
        
        The flesh
        
        Middle layer
        
        Endocarp
        
        Innermost layer
- - - - Pollination by different individual
      - Results in genetic diversity
    - - Pollination by same flower/plant
      - No new alleles
  - - - Stamen mature first
        
        Pollen released, stigmas closed
        
        Pollen transported elsewhere
    - - Chemical reactions
        
        Prevent pollen growth in stigma
      - Common systems
        
        Diploid/diploid system
        
        Proteins put on pollen tube
        
        Done by anther's tapetum
        
        Proteins match incompatibility gene
        
        Blocks pollen grain germination
        
        Pollen tube enters stigma
        
        1 more item...
        
        Protein test
        
        Pollen tube grows
        
        Stigma tests tube's proteins
        
        Protein matches incompatibility gene
        
        Pollen tube growth stopped
  - - - Imperfect flowers
        
        Lacks essential organ(s)
        
        Stamens and/or carpels
      - Perfect flowers
        
        Has both essential organs
    - - Monoecy
        
        Plant has stamens and carpels
        
        NOT on same flower
        
        Examples
        
        Cattails
        
        Corn
      - Dioecy
        
        Only one essential organ
        
        Examples
        
        Dates
        
        Willows
        
        Papaya
        
        Marijuana
        
        Ensures cross-pollination
  - - - Plants mutated
        
        Increased distinctive traits
        
        Insects mutated
        
        Increased capacity to recognize flowers
        
        Plants adapted to distance
    - - Actinomorphic symmetry
        
        Radial symmetry
        
        Two mirrored halves
        
        Any longitudinal cut
      - Zygomorphic symmetry
        
        Bilateral symmetry
        
        Two mirrored halves
        
        Only one specific cut
  - - - Adaptions
        
        Burying ovary deep
        
        Three arrangements
        
        Inferior ovary
        
        Primordia crowd together
        
        Flower organ bases fuse
        
        2 more items...
        
        Appears below other organs
        
        Superior ovary
        
        Above other flower parts
        
        Hypogynous parts
        
        Half-inferior ovary
        
        Partially buried
        
        Perigynous flower parts
        
        Long styles and stamen filaments
  - - - Growth patterns
        
        Dense populations
        
        Range lands
        
        Forests
      - Structure
        
        Reduced/absent petals
        
        Reduced/absent sepals
        
        Large, feathery stigmas
        
        Increased area
- - - - Increases chance of pollination
        
        Two basic arrangements
        
        Determinate inflorescences
        
        Limited potential for growth
        
        Inflorescence apex converted to flower
        
        Terminal flower opens first
        
        Indeterminate inflorescences
        
        Lowest flowers open first
        
        New flowers initiated at apex
        
        Types of arrangements
        
        Raceme
        
        Spike
        
        Umbels
        
        Head
- - - - Accessory fruit
        
        Contains nonovarian tissue too
        
        "False fruit"
      - True fruit
        
        Contains only ovarian tissue
    - - Aggregate fruit
        
        Fused ovaries of separate carpels
      - Multiple fruit
        
        All fruits of inflorescence fused
      - Simple fruit
        
        Develops from single ovary
        
        Also 1 flower's fused ovaries
    - - Distribution by ingestion
        
        Dry fruit
        
        Not eaten
        
        Fleshy fruit
        
        Eaten and distributed
        
        Benefits
        
        Nonrandom distribution
        
        "Organic fertilizer "
      - Fruit opening
        
        Dehiscent fruit
        
        Break open, release seeds
        
        Indehiscent fruit
        
        Don't break open
- - - - Photosynthetic
      - Perennial
      - Haploid phase
    - - Not independent of gametophyte
      - No branches/leaves
- - - - Vascular tissue only
    - - Vascular tissue/seeds
    - - No vascular tissue/seeds
- - - - The leafy stems
        
        Water Transport
        
        Primarily in Polytrichaceae
        
        Hydroids
        
        Innermost cortex
        
        Conduct water/dissolved minerals
        
        Leptoids Leptoids resemble and conduct minerals (carbohydrates) like sieve cells
        
        Resemble sieve cells
        
        Interconnections with adjacent cells
        
        Method for most
        
        Capillary action
        
        Stem exterior
        
        By leaves and stems
        
        Development and Reproduction
        
        Growth
        
        Spore germinates
        
        Sends out chlorophyllous cell
        
        Forms Protonema
        
        1 more item...
        
        Reproduction
        
        Gametangia
        
        Antheridia
        
        Microgametangia
        
        2 more items...
        
        Archegonia
        
        Megagametangia
        
        2 more items...
        
        Occurrences
        
        In leaves along stem
        
        Stem tip
        
        Morphology
        
        Grow from apical meristem
        
        Prominent apical cell
        
        Leaves
        
        Three rows
        
        Midrib
        
        One cell thick
        
        Exception: midrib and margin
        
        Unistratose
        
        Cuticle on upper surface
        
        Stems
        
        Tissue called cortex
        
        Little tissue differentiation
        
        Inner cells larger
        
        Parenchymatous and chlorophyllous
        
        Rhizoids
        
        Anchor stem
  - - - Not independent
        
        Development
        
        Begins in archegonium
        
        Transverse division of zygote
        
        Basal cell develops into foot
        
        Cell division
        
        1 more item...
        
        Morphology
        
        Simple structure
        
        Capsule
        
        Apical sporangium
        
        Peristome teeth
        
        2 more items...
        
        Calyptra
        
        2 more items...
        
        Operculum
        
        1 more item...
        
        Columella
        
        1 more item...
        
        Seta
        
        Narrow stalk
        
        Between capsule and foot
        
        Foot
        
        Small, bulbous tissue
        
        Transfer cells
        
        Interface with gametophore
        
        Absorbs minerals/water from it
  - - - Due to thin cuticle
        
        Mechanisms to compensate
        
        Tolerant of desiccation
        
        Drying does no damage
        
        30% water weight
        
        Remain dormant if dry
        
        Resistant to UV light
        
        Grow in moist environments
        
        Cloud forests
        
        Spray zones
        
        Rain forests
    - - Low temperatures
        
        Abundant sunlight
        
        No competition
        
        Moisture from snow/rain
      - Grow on extreme surfaces
        
        Hard, impervious surfaces
        
        Bare rock
        
        Brick or mortar
        
        Bark
        
        Edge of lakes/ponds
- - - - Parenchymatous
        
        Succulent but brittle
        
        Not tolerant of drying
        
        Winter annuals
      - Body structure
        
        Heart shaped
        
        Disk shaped
        
        Ribbon shaped
      - Thin and smooth
        
        Most thin along edges
        
        Center 4-5 cells thick
        
        Smooth upper surface
        
        Some have thin lamellae
      - Numerous internal chambers
        
        Mucilage chambers form
        
        Invaded by Nostoc
        
        Symbiotic relationship
    - - Gametangia
        
        Antheridia
        
        Development
        
        Mucilage chamber forms
        
        Cells grow into antheridia
        
        Outer cell layer sterile
        
        Develop chromoplasts
        
        Archegonia
        
        Same structure as moss
        
        Egg surrounded by thallus cells
  - - - Morphology
        
        Dependent on gametophore
        
        Basal meristem
        
        Continual meiosis
        
        Pushes new cells upward
        
        Sporangium
        
        Mature at tip
        
        Dihiscence along two apertures
        
        Outer cell layer
        
        Sterile and chlorophyllous
        
        Stomata
        
        In Anthoceros and Phaeoceros
        
        Columella and pseudoelaters
        
        Spores
        
        Green, golden yellow, brown, black
        
        Foot
        
        Embedded in gametophore
  - - - Moist, eroded soil
        
        Shaded areas
      - Rare places
        
        Tree trunks
        
        Bare rock
    - - No oil bodies
      - Single large chloroplast / cell
      - Have a pyrenoid
      - Horn-shaped sporangium
- - - - Two groups
        
        Leafy liverworts
        
        Greatly resemble moss
        
        Leafy stems
        
        Stems
        
        Tissue is parenchyma
        
        2 more items...
        
        Growth from apical cell
        
        1 more item...
        
        Cells with oil bodies
        
        Leaves
        
        Two rounded loves
        
        1 more item...
        
        Three rows
        
        2 more items...
        
        Thallose liverworts
        
        Thallus
        
        No roots, stems, leaves
        
        Body
        
        Flat, ribbon like
        
        Bilaterally symmetrical
        
        Stratified and thick
        
        Cells
        
        Contain large oil drops
        
        Arranged as aerenchyma
        
        1 more item...
      - Reproduction
        
        Leafy liverworts gametangia
        
        Mixed with regular leaves
        
        Positioned on specialized branches
        
        Thallose liverworts
        
        Both antheridia and archegonia
        
        Surrounded by chlorophyllous cells
        
        Marchantia
        
        Male gametophores
        
        Antheridiophore
        
        Female gametophores
        
        Archegoniophores
  - - - Similar to moss sporophytes
        
        Morphology
        
        Seta
        
        Extremely delicate
        
        Clear, thinned-walled cells
        
        Not in some liverworts
        
        Sporangium
        
        No columella
        
        Outer layer
        
        Sterile cells
        
        One cell thick
        
        Globose
        
        No operculum or peristome teeth
        
        Dehiscence by four slits
        
        Elater cells
        
        Push spores out
        
        Foot
        
        At bottom of archegonium
- - - - Mosses
      - Previously Musci
    - - Hornworts
      - Previously Anthocerotae
    - - Liverworts
      - Previously Hepaticae
- - - - Prey extinct, predator extinct
      - Stable populations of both
      - Prey decreases, predator decreases
    - - Factors
        
        Handling time
        
        Feeding rate
      - Prey-dependent
    - - Lotka-Volterra model
        
        dN/dt=rN-aNP
        
        Zero growth isocline
        
        Paradox of enrichment
      - Rosenzeig-MacArthur model
        
        Curved zero growth isocline
  - - - Factors for prey choice
        
        Probability of being eaten
        
        Probability of encountering prey
        
        Decision to attack prey
    - - Smart predators broaden diet
      - Some prey always/never eaten
      - Predators seek high-energy prey
      - Probability of being eaten
        
        Dependent on profitable prey
  - - - Exploitation competition
        
        Consume shared resources
      - Interference competition
        
        One restricts another's access
      - Coexistence of competing species
        
        Interfere with themselves more
    - - Increase growth rates
      - Consumed by organisms
  - - - Increase plant 1, decrease others
- - - - Plant storage organs
  - - - Larger areas more diverse
        
        More variation of factors
        
        Larger populations
      - Species-area relationship
        
        S=cA^z
        
        Species abundance distribution
      - Levels
        
        Local
        
        Region
        
        Biome
        
        Biogeographical region
      - Measures of diversity
        
        Alpha diversity
        
        Species # - small site
        
        Beta diversity
        
        Compares small sites
        
        Gamma diversity
        
        Species # in region
    - - Less diversity north
        
        Great diversity near equator
        
        Equator more benign conditions
        
        Warmer climate
        
        No freezing conditions
        
        Abundant rainfall
        
        Geography/geology
        
        Mountainous north
        
        Land masses near equator
        
        Evolutionary history
- - - - Occur at costs
        
        Benefits must outweigh costs
        
        Cheating
        
        Benefits without costs
      - Possibly arisen from predation
        
        Pollination
  - - - Nurse plants
      - Works in primary succession
- - - - Primary consumers
      - Primary producers
      - Secondary consumers
  - - - All prey of carnivores
      - All food sources of prey
      - .> 3 tropic levels
    - - Traces energy flow
    - - Presence greatly affects community
- - - - Boundaries
        
        Time
        
        Beavers dam stream
        
        Changes into meadow
        
        Space
        
        Altitude
        
        Region with different factors
        
        Physical boundary
      - Undergo change
        
        Succession
        
        Pioneers
        
        Climax community
      - Community restoration
        
        Reversing human damage
        
        Habitat loss
        
        Habitat fragmentation
- - - - Migration colonizes empty patches
      - Region composed of patches
      - Populations may go extinct
        
        Fugitive species
      - Some patches occupied, some not
    - - Source habitat
        
        High-quality patch
      - Sink habitat
        
        Low-quality patch
    - - Interconnect patches
      - Important from global warming
- - - - Hemicelluloses
    - - Unusually strong cells
  - - - Water, salts, calcium, protein
  - - - Converting fats to sugars
    - - Detoxification
  - - - Outer membrane
      - Inner membrane
      - Nuclear pores
    - - DNA
      - DNA enzymes
      - Histone proteins
      - RNA
  - - - Forming face
        
        Vesicles accumulate
      - Maturing face
        
        Vesicles are released
  - - - Lipid synthesis
      - Membrane assembly
    - - Holds ribosomes
  - - - Plastoglobuli
    - - Chlorophyll
      - Thylakoids
        
        Granum
      - Photosynthesis
    - - Amyloplasts
        
        Store starch
      - "Colorless"
    - - In young cells
    - - Inner membrane
      - Outer membrane
      - Stroma
      - Contain phytoferritin
  - - - Outer mitochondrial membrane
      - Cristae
      - Inner mitochondrial membrane
      - Matrix
  - - - Polysome
- - - - Division of labor
  - - - 2 daughter cells
- - - - Intrinsic proteins
        
        Partially immersed
        
        Glycoproteins
      - Extrinsic proteins
        
        Outside membrane
    - - Monolayer on water surface
      - Bilayer in agitated solution
  - - - Active transport
        
        Molecular pumps
      - Facilitated diffusion
        
        Passive transport
    - - Vesicles fuse with membrane
    - - Exocytosis
      - Endocytosis
- - - - Plasmodesmata in plants Plasmodesmata permit communication between the two types of phloem cells
        
        Primary pit field
        
        Symplast (protoplasm)
  - - - Spaces+wall=apoplast
- - - - fishing nets/ropes
  - - - geotextile
  - - - concrete
  - - - filters/twine
- - - - beans
      - lentils
      - peas
      - peanuts
  - - - glycemic index
    - - low protein
    - - "Caryopses"
        
        germ
        
        bran
        
        fruits
      - wheat
        
        gluten
      - rice
        
        GMO
      - oats
      - barley
      - rye
      - corn
  - - - Small fruits
        
        Apiaceae (dill family)
      - Leaves
        
        Lamiaceae (mint family)
    - - Black pepper
      - Capsaicin
  - - - Vit C & E
- - - - Frankincense
- - - - TCH
    - - coffea arabica
    - - camellia sinesis
    - - morphine
      - codeine
- - - - Mutations
        
        New advantageous alleles
- - - - Genetically identical populations
      - Non-competitive habitats
      - Impossible conditions
    - - 2+ factors involved
        
        Insect attack
        
        Drought
        
        Cold
        
        Need for pollinators
        
        Metabolism
        
        Seed dispersing system
    - - Artificial selection
        
        Changed by humans
        
        Ex. selective breeding
      - Natural selection
        
        Survival of fittest
        
        2 conditions
        
        Excessive amount of offspring
        
        Different progeny in alleles
        
        Genetic diversity
      - Accidents
        
        Non-adaptable events
        
        Selective forces
        
        Remove weak only
      - Not part of natural selection
        
        Intention
        
        Planning
        
        Purpose
        
        Voluntary decision making
      - Mutation
        
        Affects allele frequency
- - - - Exceptions
        
        Loss of metabolism
        
        Loss of structure
- - - - Biological reproductive barriers
        
        Sympatric speciation
        
        Prezygotic isolation mechanisms
        
        Act before fertilization
        
        Evolutionary changes in pollinators
        
        Postzygotic internal isolation barrers
        
        Act after fertilization
        
        Hybrid sterility
        
        Hybrid inviability
      - Abiological reproductive barriers
        
        Allopatric/geographic speciation
        
        Physical, nonliving barriers
        
        Mountain ranges
        
        Rivers
        
        Deserts and oceans
    - - Rapid evolution of species
        
        Founder individual
        
        Homogeneous population
        
        Genetic drift
        
        Heterogeneous population
  - - - Cacti and euphorbias
  - - - Gene flow
        
        Vegetative propagation
        
        Small piece of plant
        
        Pollen transfer
        
        One full haploid genome
        
        Seed dispersal Seed dispersal by means of digestion and excretion randomizes gene flow
        
        Dispersal and germination
- - - - Fatty, hydrophobic material
    - - Metabolic pathways arose
        
        Use of enzymes
        
        Glycolysis
    - - Seaside pools
        
        Pools hot, polymers formed
        
        Pools frozen, polymers formed
      - Absorption by clay particles
        
        Concentrations of monomers
    - - Oxidizing atmosphere
        
        Two consequences
        
        Allowed world to rust
        
        Formation of aerobic respiration
        
        Ozone layer
        
        Terrestrial life possible
    - - Small organic molecules formed
        
        Experiments by S. Miller
    - - Unsure when life began
    - - Energy sources
        
        UV/gamma radiation from sun
        
        Heat
        
        Coalescence of gas & dust
        
        Radioactive decay
        
        Lightning
      - Time available
        
        No limits
      - Chemicals in atmosphere
        
        Second atmosphere
        
        Reducing atmosphere
- - - - Anchors shoot in soil
  - - - Woody forest plants
        
        Hyphae on outermost root parts
    - - Herbaceous plants
        
        Hyphae penetrates root
        
        Invade cortex cells
        
        Provide phosphorous to plant
        
        Form arbuscule
  - - - Attach to other trees
        
        Roots spread along bark
    - - Waterproof barrier
  - - - Symbiotic relationship with Rhizobium
        
        Rhizobium enter infection thread
        
        Enter root nodule
        
        Multiply in plant cells
        
        Provide nitrogen
  - - - Biennial species and perennials
        
        Spring brings new shoots
  - - - Adhere to and penetrate host
        
        Contact xylem
        
        Self photosynthesis
        
        Contact xylem and phloem
        
        Little or no photosynthesis
  - - - Brace trunk against wind
    - - Brace against currents/tides
    - - Transport nutrients
      - Extra absorption
      - Stability
  - - - Roots grow to soil
        
        Fuse to host's roots
        
        Host tree typically dies
- - - - Closer to root tip
        
        Protoderm
        
        Provascular tissue
        
        Primary xylem
        
        Primary phloem
      - Farther from root tip
        
        Epidermis
        
        Mature vascular tissue
        
        Metaxylem
        
        Metaphloem
  - - - Cortex
        
        Transfer of minerals Reason Hyphae invade cortex
        
        Apoplastic transport
        
        Symplastic trasnport
      - Pericycle
        
        Parenchyma cells
        
        Lateral roots initiated here
      - Endodermis
        
        Casparian strips
        
        Impermeable
        
        Radial walls
        
        Suberin
        
        Lignin
  - - - Mitotically inactive
        
        Reserve of healthy cells
  - - - Cells in central position
        
        Divided cells pushed forward
    - - Divided cells grow out
    - - 4 to 5 days
  - - - Continual application of suberin
        
        Passage cells
        
        Only Casparian strip
        
        Slower to develop
      - Root pressure built up
- - - - Initiated by cell division
  - - - Root apical meristem
        
        Growth pushes it outward
        
        Emerges through parent root
        
        Differentiates
        
        Connects with parent root
- - - - Cytokinin
      - Gibberellin
    - - Stability of plants
    - - Cylindrical shape
- - - - Develop from radicle
      - Lateral/branch roots
      - Seen most in eudicots
    - - Adventitious roots
        
        "Independent-growing" roots
        
        Seen most in monocots
  - - - Root cap
        
        Protects apical meristem
        
        Forced through soil first
        
        Secretes mucigel
      - Apical meristem
      - Region of growth (division)
    - - Cell division and expansion
    - - Region of maturation
      - Root hairs Aid greatly in absorption
        
        Increases surface area
        
        Reach into small pores
- - - - Photosynthesis occurs deeply
  - - - Extended lifetime
  - - - Unpalatable chemicals
        
        Simple leaves
        
        Perennial
        
        Evergreens
        
        Pine
  - - - Arid environments
  - - - Sundew
        
        Glandular trichomes
        
        Venus flytrap
    - - Nepenthes
- - - - Ventral surface
        
        Adaxial
      - Dorsal surface
        
        Abaxial side
    - - 1 part blade
    - - Multi-part blade
        
        Rachis
        
        Petiolule
        
        Leaflets
  - - - Prevents self-shading
      - Allows leaf flutter
      - Protects against insects
  - - - Sheathing leaf base
  - - - Larger veins side by side
        
        In monocots
    - - Netted pattern
        
        In basal angiosperms/eudicots
  - - - Leaf scar
- - - - Stomata
        
        More in lower epidermis
    - - Often many on leaves
  - - - Palisade parenchyma
        
        Photosynthesis
        
        Sometimes along both surfaces
    - - Spongy mesophyll
        
        Aerenchyma
        
        Permits CO2 diffusion
  - - - Midrib (midvein)
        
        Lateral veins
        
        Minor veins
    - - Bundle sheath extension
        
        Fibers
  - - - Stipules
- - - - Leaf primordium
        
        Lamina
        
        Midrib + 2 wings
        
        Stomata, trichomes, vascular bundles
  - - - Leaf primordium
        
        Sheathing leaf base
        
        Lamina
        
        Abaxial epidermis
        
        Adaxial epidermis
        
        Initiates next leaf primordium
- - - - Maximum light/CO2 absorption
    - - Almost all primary tissue
- - - - Herbaceous
    - - Woody
  - - - Stems
      - Roots
      - Leaves
  - - - Eudicots
        
        Broadleaf plants
      - Monocots
      - Basal angiosperms
- - - - Plasticity
        
        Elongating shoot tips
  - - - Provides elastic support
        
        Water transport (some)
    - - Mechanical
        
        Sclereids
        
        Short
        
        Fibers
        
        Long
      - Conducting
        
        Tracheids
        
        Vascular plants
        
        Vessel elements
        
        Flowering plants
  - - - Only thin primary walls
        
        All soft plant parts
        
        80 to 100 nm thick
      - Phloem
    - - Chlorenchyma cells
        
        Photosynthesis
      - Glandular cells
        
        Secretion
      - Transfer cells
        
        Transport of materials
- - - - Region just above node
        
        Axillary bud
        
        Bud scales
        
        Terminal bud
    - - Regions between nodes
  - - - Short shoots
        
        Thick, fleshy leaves
        
        Ex. onion
    - - Vertical thick stems
        
        Thin, papery leaves
        
        Ex. gladiolus
    - - Fleshy horizontal stems
        
        Plant grows underground
        
        Ex. bamboo
    - - Horizontal stems
        
        Short growth periods
        
        Storage of nutrients
        
        Ex. potatoes
  - - - 4 rows of leaves
    - - 3+ leaves per node
    - - 2 leaves per node
    - - Spiral of leaves
    - - 1 leaf per node
    - - 2 rows of leaves
- - - - Outer wall with cutin
        
        Water impermeable
    - - External interchange of material
      - Prevention of water loss
      - Protection: invasion barrier
    - - Guard cells
      - Stomatal pores
    - - Elongated epidermal cells
        
        Protection
        
        Secretion
  - - - Tracheids
        
        Long/narrow
        
        Pointed ends
        
        Pit membrane
      - Tracheary element
        
        Secondary cell walls
        
        Scalariform thickening
        
        Annular thickenings
        
        Reticulate thickening
        
        Cirular bordered pits
        
        Helical thickening
        
        Pits/Pit pairs
        
        Water transport
        
        Dead at maturity
      - Vessel elements
        
        Short/wide
        
        Flat ends
        
        Perforation
        
        Only in flowering plants
    - - Sieve cells
        
        Long/narrow
        
        Pointed ends
        
        Albuminous cells
      - Sieve tube members
        
        Short/wide
        
        Flat ends
        
        Sieve tube
        
        Sieve plates
        
        Companion cells
      - Sieve element
        
        Sieve pores
        
        Sieve areas
        
        Alive at maturity
  - - - Photosynthetic parenchyma
      - Some collenchyma
      - Sometimes secretion cells
      - Aerenchyma in fleshy stems
  - - - Collateral
        
        Primary xylem
        
        Primary phloem
      - Arrangement
        
        Eudicots/angiosperms: piths
        
        Monocots: "scattered" bundles
- - - - Young xylem/phloem cells
    - - Early pith and cortex
    - - Epidermal cells
  - - - Subapical meristem
        
        Metaxylem
        
        Grow longest
        
        Any secondary wall type
        
        Protophloem
        
        Short life span
        
        Small, no companion cells
        
        Protoxylem
        
        Differentiate first
        
        Annular or helical secondary walls
        
        Metaphloem
        
        Longer life spans
        
        Large with companions cells
- - - - Produces 2 ATPs
        
        Not very effective
      - Needs NAD+
        
        NAD+ to NADH
        
        Convert NADH back to NAD+
        
        Ethanol in plants/fungi
        
        Lactate in animals
      - Converts glucose to pyruvate
        
        Substrate-level phosphorylation
      - Occurs: Cytosol and Plastids
  - - - Malate-aspartate shuttle
      - Glycerol phosphate shuttle
    - - Chemiosmotic Phosphorylation
        
        Electron acceptors
        
        Flavin Mononucleotide (FMN)
        
        Ubiquinone
        
        Cytochrome Oxidase
        
        Electrons to oxygen
        
        Oxygen reduced to H2O
        
        Proton gradient
        
        Protons through ATP synthetase
        
        ATP produced
        
        NADH to NAD+
        
        Electrons drive proton transfer
    - - Other names
        
        Tricarboxylic acid cycle
        
        Krebs cycle
      - Occurs: Mitochondrial matrix
        
        Oxaloacetate
        
        Starting and ending molecule
        
        NADH and FADH2 produced
        
        Drives ATP synthesis
        
        Pyruvate > Acetyl CoA
        
        Acetyl + CoA = Acetyl CoA
        
        CO2 released
        
        Isocitrate > α-ketoglutarate > succinyl CoA
        
        1 ATP produced
        
        Succinyl CoA > Succinate
  - - - Thermogenic respiration
- - - - Soil flooded by rain
    - - Only 1% to 2%
- - - - V. vinifera
    - - White: 10-15°C
      - Red: 25-30°C
  - - - Distillation
  - - - Barley
        
        Malt
      - Wheat
      - Corn
      - Rice
- - - - Zygote germinated mitotically
    - - Evolved in complexity
      - Gametophyte generation small
    - - Nonvascular plants
        
        Vascular plants
        
        Vascular cryptogams
        
        Seed plants
  - - - Nonvascular plants
        
        Sporophytes became simpler
      - Vascular plants
        
        Sporophytes became complex
        
        Gametophytes reduced
    - - Vascularized
      - Became larger
      - Became more complex
- - - - Only central cells sporogenous
        
        Terminal sporangia
      - Homosporous
        
        No separate microspores & megaspores
      - Equal dichotomous branching
        
        Two branches
        
        Equal size and vigor
      - Upright stems
        
        No leaves
        
        Endarch protostele
      - Sporangia location
        
        Masses at branch ends
    - - Rhynia
      - Aglaphyton
      - Cooksonia
      - Lyonophyton
        
        Gametophytes only
      - Sciadophyton
        
        Gametophytes only
      - Hornephyton
  - - - Center of solid xylem
        
        Two types
        
        Endarch protostele
        
        Protoxylem in center
        
        Differentiates when cells small
        
        Metaxylem on edge
        
        Differentiates when cells expanded
        
        Found in rhyniophytes
        
        Exarch protostele
        
        Protoxylem on edge
        
        Metaxylem in center
        
        Found in zosterophyllophytes
    - - Pith in center
      - Found in ferns/seed plants
  - - - Sporangia
        
        Opened transversely
        
        Positioned laterally
      - Exarch protostele
      - Homosporous
      - Stems
        
        Lower stem
        
        None of those structures
        
        Upper stem
        
        Ordinary epidermal cells
        
        Stomata
        
        Cuticle
      - Small herbs
        
        No secondary growth
        
        Most dichotomously branched
    - - Zosterophyllum
        
        Principal genus
      - Asteroxylon
        
        Had enations
        
        Outgrowths of photosynthetic tissue
      - Rebuchia
        
        Sporangia on specialized branches
      - Crenaticaulis
        
        Some pseudomonopodial branching
- - - - Heterospory
        
        Cones or strobili
        
        Clusters of sporangia
        
        Development of heterospory
        
        Megaspores
        
        Megagametophytes
        
        Microspores
        
        Microgametophytes
      - Extant Genera
        
        Selaginella
        
        S. lepidophylla
        
        Resurrection plant
        
        Curls up, turns brown
        
        Reopens green when moistened
        
        Characteristics
        
        Heterosporous
        
        Megagametophyte
        
        Develop in spore wall
        
        Microgametophyte
        
        Develop in spore wall
        
        Ligules
        
        Small tissue flap
        
        On upper leaf surfaces
        
        Isoetes
        
        Quillworts
        
        Grow in wet, muddy areas
        
        Characteristics
        
        Small corm-like stem
        
        Roots attached below
        
        Leaves attached above
        
        Ligules
        
        Weak cambial growth
        
        Additional exterior cortex parenchyma
        
        Additional interior vascular tissue
        
        CAM photosynthesis
        
        Heterosporous
        
        Lycopodium
        
        Small herbs
        
        True roots
        
        Short upright branches
        
        Prostrate rhizomes
        
        Homosporous
        
        Sporangia
        
        In cones
        
        Distributed among shoots
        
        Gametophytes
        
        Some green and photosynthetic
        
        Others subterranean and heterotrophic
        
        "Ground pine", "Club moss"
      - Morphology
        
        Earliest lycophytes
        
        Drepanophycus and Baragwanathia
        
        Enations were large
        
        Microphylls
        
        Single trace of vascular tissue
        
        True roots
        
        Sporophytes could grow large
        
        Some secondary growth
        
        Extinct types of lycophytes
        
        Vascular cambium
        
        No radial longitudinal division
        
        Wood thickness < 10cm
        
        Current-looking secondary xylem
- - - - Ferns
        
        Pteridophyta
        
        Environments
        
        Most places
        
        Lakesides
        
        Dry, hot deserts
        
        Moist, shady forests
        
        Surface of water
        
        Submerged below water
        
        Characteristics
        
        Perennial and herbaceous
        
        Endarch siphonostele
        
        Leaf traces diverge
        
        Leaf gaps created
        
        Homosporous
        
        Except the two water ferns
        
        Leaves
        
        Almost always compound The structure of fern leaves is almost always compound with multi-part blades
        
        Rachis and leaflets
        
        Leaf primordia
        
        Fiddlehead
        
        Sori
        
        Clusters of sporangia
        
        Underside of leaf
        
        Reproduction
        
        Gametophytes
        
        Small and simple
        
        Heart- or ribbon-shaped
        
        Photosynthetic
        
        Both antheridia and archegonia
        
        Sporophytes
        
        Homosporous
        
        Become independent
        
        Sporangia development
        
        Leptosporangia
        
        Single surface cell
        
        Divides periclinally
        
        1 more item...
        
        Few spores produced
        
        Only in clade Leptosporangiatae
        
        Eusporangium
        
        Surface cells
        
        Undergo periclinal divisions
        
        2 more items...
        
        Large with many spores
        
        Fundamental type
        
        Special genera
        
        Psilotum
        
        Simplest vascular plants
        
        No roots or leaves
        
        Similar to Rhynia and Aglaophyton
        
        Gametophytes
        
        Heterotrophic
        
        Contain vascular tissue
        
        Tmesipteris
        
        Simplest vascular plants
        
        Leptosporangiate ferns
        
        Most familiar
        
        Most species
      - Equisetophytes
        
        Arthrophyta
        
        Characteristics
        
        Aerial stems
        
        Whorled pattern of leaves
        
        Megaphylls
        
        Single trace of vascular tissue
        
        Herbaceous
        
        No secondary growth
        
        Siphonosteles
        
        Endarch
        
        Sporangiophore
        
        Group of 5-10 sporangia
        
        Arranged in a strobilus
        
        Monopodial growth
        
        Gametophytes
        
        Either male or bisexual
        
        Grow in moist habitats
        
        Horsetails
        
        The 15 extant species
        
        Scouring rushes
    - - Three types of "leaves"
        
        Enations/microphylls
        
        Zosterophyllophytes and lycophytes
        
        Megaphylls
        
        Seed plants, ferns, equisetophytes
        
        Leaves on gametophytes
        
        Nonvascular plants
      - Telome theory
        
        Explains megaphyll evolution
        
        Overtopping of main branches
        
        Planation of telomes
        
        Parenchyma develops between telomes
      - Sporophyll
        
        Leaf-like structure
        
        Bears sporangium
    - - Three extinct genera
        
        Psilophyton
        
        Pertica
        
        Trimerophyton
      - Strongly resembled Rhyniophytes
        
        Terminal sporangia
        
        Dehisced laterally
        
        Dichotomous branching
        
        Homosporous
        
        Endarch vascular cylinder
        
        Tracheids
      - Special features
        
        Pseudomonopodial branching
        
        Single main trunk
        
        Overtopping
        
        Unequal branching
        
        One stem more vigorous
      - Phyllotaxy
        
        Alternate
        
        Decussate
        
        Regular spiral
        
        Distichous
        
        Tetrastichous
        
        Whorled
- - - - Community + nonliving factors
    - - Group of populations
    - - Groups of individuals in species
- - - - Operational habitat
        
        Definitely affects the plant
    - - Abiotic
        
        Nonliving, physical factors
        
        Latitude
        
        Length of day
        
        Amount of light energy
        
        Altitude
        
        High altitudes
        
        Intense ultraviolet light
        
        Soil
        
        New soil
        
        Pioneers invade
        
        Mature soil
        
        4 more items...
        
        Disturbances
        
        Produce radical, fast change
        
        Affect biotic factors
        
        Landslides
        
        Snow avalanches
        
        Fires
        
        Floods
        
        Climate
        
        Tolerance ranges
        
        Rainfall
        
        Relative humidity
        
        Temperature
        
        Extremes important
        
        Winds
      - Biotic
        
        Living components
        
        Other plant species
        
        Interaction
        
        Competition
        
        Disadvantageous
        
        2 more items...
        
        Mutualism
        
        Beneficial for both
        
        Other organisms
        
        Mutualism
        
        Commensal relationships
        
        Predation
        
        Herbivory
        
        Browsing
        
        Grazing
        
        Pathogenic
        
        Plant itself
        
        Habitat modification
- - - - Seasonal changes
      - Daily cycles
      - Succession
  - - - Dependent on resources
        
        Soil composition
        
        Rich or poor
        
        Tolerance ranges
        
        Broad or narrow
        
        Climate
        
        Stressful or mild
  - - - Life forms
        
        Hemicryptophytes
        
        Chamaephytes
        
        Geophytes
        
        Phanerophytes
        
        Therophytes
  - - - Energy flow
        
        10% to next level
        
        Tertiary consumers
        
        Secondary consumers
        
        Decomposers
        
        Primary consumers
        
        Primary producers
- - - - Limiting factor
        
        Determines plant health
        
        Common factors
        
        Extreme temperature
        
        Lack of warmth (winter)
        
        Water
        
        Biotic factors
        
        Pollinators
        
        Soil factors
        
        Mineral composition
        
        Texture
    - - Three types
        
        Clumped distribution
        
        Uniform distribution
        
        Allelopathy
        
        Random distribution
  - - - Two factors
        
        Generation time
        
        From birth to offspring
        
        Affects rapidity of growth
        
        Biotic potential
        
        Offspring # that live
        
        Greater potential=increased growth
        
        Smaller potential=decreased growth
      - Carrying capacity
        
        Limit # for population
  - - - Species' biotic potential
        
        Produced by disturbances
        
        r-selected species
        
        Annuals
        
        Small shrubby perennials
    - - Carrying capacity
        
        Produced by crowded conditions
        
        K-selected species
        
        Long-lived perennials
- - - - Loss of electrons
      - Oxidation reaction
      - Oxidized compounds
        
        More oxygen
    - - Redox potential
        
        Accept/donate electrons tendency
      - Reducing potential
        
        Force electrons onto compounds
        
        Converting CO2 and H2O
    - - Gain of elections
      - Reduction reaction
      - Reduced compounds
        
        More hydrogen
  - - - Heme
        
        Iron atom carries electron
        
        +2 to+3 oxidation state
    - - Two electrons, two protons
    - - Copper atom carries electron
  - - - Substrate-level phosphorylation
        
        Phosphate forced on ADP
      - Oxidation phosphorylation
        
        Respiration
      - Photophosphorylation
        
        Light in photosynthesis
- - - - Helps produce organic molecules
      - Photosynthesis
  - - - Photosynthesis
    - - Respiration
- - - - Accessory pigments
        
        Chlorophyll b
        
        Resonance
        
        Carotenoids
      - Structured
        
        Antenna complex
        
        All chlorophylls, carotenoids, proteins
        
        Reaction center
        
        Pair of chlorophyll a
        
        Donates excited electrons
      - Absorbs visible light
        
        Electron is activate
        
        Ground state to excited state
        
        Used in chemical reactions
        
        Fluorescence
      - Chlorophyll a
        
        Red and blue light
        
        Red light (660 nm)
        
        Blue light (440 nm)
    - - P700
        
        Transfers electrons to NADP+
        
        Fx
        
        Ferredoxin
        
        Ferredoxin-NADP+ reductace
        
        NADP+
    - - P680
        
        Provides electrons for P700
      - Electrons from H2O
        
        Electron transport chain
        
        Phaeophytin
        
        Q
        
        Plastoquinone
        
        Cytochrome b6/f complex
        
        1 more item...
    - - ATP synthetase
        
        CF0-CF1 complex
        
        CF0 pumps protons across
        
        CF1 produces ATP
      - Chemiosmotic phosphorylation
        
        H+ accumulate in lumen
        
        H+ flow through ATP synthase
        
        ATP is produced
      - Two pathways
        
        Noncyclic electron transport
        
        Cyclic electron transport
  - - - C3 cycle
    - - Enzyme RuBP carboxylase
        
        Two 3-phosphoglycerates created
        
        1,3-diphosphoglycerate
        
        3-phosphaglyceraldehyde (PGAL)
    - - Used to build molecules
  - - - Gluconeogenesis
        
        Dihydroxyacetane phosphate
        
        Fructose-1,6-biphosphate
        
        Fructose-6-phosphate
        
        Glucose-6-phosphate
        
        Amylopectin
        
        Cellulose
        
        Amylose
- - - - PEP carboxylase
        
        Oxaloacetate
        
        Malate
        
        NADPH
    - - Reduces water loss
  - - - Color or wavelength
    - - Intensity or brightness
    - - Number of hours/day
  - - - PEP carboxylase
        
        Stomata open only at night