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Course Mind Map, Structure of Woody Plants #, Structure of Woody Plants,…

- - - - give rise to fascicular cambium
    - - mature parenchyma cells comes out of cell cycle arrest
      - connects each side with fascicular cambium
  - - - younger
    - - oldest
  - - - short, cuboidal
        
        storage parenchyma cells
        
        albuminous cell in gymnosperm
      - goes through periclinal cell division
        
        one continues to be cambial ray initial
        
        other give rise to secondary xylem or phloem
    - - long, tapered cells
        
        140-462 microns in dicots
        
        700-8700 microns in conifers
      - goes through longitudinal cell division
        
        one continues to be fusiform initial
        
        other give rise to secondary xylem or phloem
      - anticlinal wall
        
        located perpendicular to the cambium's surface
      - periclinal wall
        
        wall parallel to the circumference of cambium's surface
  - - - Ray initials
        
        grouped together in short vertical rows
        
        can be
        
        uniseriate
        
        one cell wide
        
        biseriate
        
        two cell wide
        
        multiseriate
        
        many cells wide
      - Fusiform initials
        
        regular horizontal rows
        
        storied cambium
        
        rare
        
        occur in few eudicots species
        
        tend to be dhor
        
        irregular
        
        nonstoried cambium
- - - - tracheids
      - vessel elements
      - fibers
      - sclereids
      - parenchyma
    - - derived from fusiform initials
      - contain tracheary elements
        
        blood vessels
        
        tracheids
        
        carry out longitudinal conduction of water
      - gives wood strength and flexibility
    - - derived from ray initials
      - simple
      - angiosperms
        
        contain only parenchyma
        
        store carbohydrates and nutrients
        
        upright cells
        
        procumbant cells
        
        arranged in rays
  - - - first wood formed
      - spring wood
      - have high proportion of wide vessels
    - - thick cuticle
      - less transpiration
      - summer wood
      - stronger, provides support
    - - early wood and late wood
  - - - contain gelatinous fibers with cellulose rich wall
      - prevent branch from dropping
- - - - also called phellogen
      - differ greatly from vascular cambium
    - - also called phellem celll
      - outer cell
    - - includes phellogen, phellem and phelloderm
    - - tissues outside of innermost cork cambium
    - - secondary phloem between vascular cambium and innermost cork cambium
  - - - color changes from green to tan
      - may take several years in some species
- - - - takes in and store water rapidly
- - - - new vessels surrounded by new cambium
      - parenchyma
        
        higher storage capacity
      - more cells production
    - - unusual activity
        
        stem grow in 2 directions
        
        provides flexibility
        
        adaptive
  - - - increases in width
      - adventitous roots addition
      - occurs in palms
- - - - give rise to fascicular cambium
    - - mature parenchyma cells comes out of cell cycle arrest
      - connects each side with fascicular cambium
  - - - younger
    - - oldest
  - - - short, cuboidal
        
        storage parenchyma cells
        
        albuminous cell in gymnosperm
      - goes through periclinal cell division
        
        one continues to be cambial ray initial
        
        other give rise to secondary xylem or phloem
    - - long, tapered cells
        
        140-462 microns in dicots
        
        700-8700 microns in conifers
      - goes through longitudinal cell division
        
        one continues to be fusiform initial
        
        other give rise to secondary xylem or phloem
      - anticlinal wall
        
        located perpendicular to the cambium's surface
      - periclinal wall
        
        wall parallel to the circumference of cambium's surface
  - - - Ray initials
        
        grouped together in short vertical rows
        
        can be
        
        uniseriate
        
        one cell wide
        
        biseriate
        
        two cell wide
        
        multiseriate
        
        many cells wide
      - Fusiform initials
        
        regular horizontal rows
        
        storied cambium
        
        rare
        
        occur in few eudicots species
        
        tend to be dhor
        
        irregular
        
        nonstoried cambium
- - - - tracheids
      - vessel elements
      - fibers
      - sclereids
      - parenchyma
    - - derived from fusiform initials
      - contain tracheary elements
        
        blood vessels
        
        tracheids
        
        carry out longitudinal conduction of water
      - gives wood strength and flexibility
    - - derived from ray initials
      - simple
      - angiosperms
        
        contain only parenchyma
        
        store carbohydrates and nutrients
        
        upright cells
        
        procumbant cells
        
        arranged in rays
  - - - first wood formed
      - spring wood
      - have high proportion of wide vessels
    - - thick cuticle
      - less transpiration
      - summer wood
      - stronger, provides support
    - - early wood and late wood
  - - - contain gelatinous fibers with cellulose rich wall
      - prevent branch from dropping
- - - - also called phellogen
      - differ greatly from vascular cambium
    - - also called phellem celll
      - outer cell
    - - includes phellogen, phellem and phelloderm
    - - tissues outside of innermost cork cambium
    - - secondary phloem between vascular cambium and innermost cork cambium
  - - - color changes from green to tan
      - may take several years in some species
- - - - takes in and store water rapidly
- - - - new vessels surrounded by new cambium
      - parenchyma
        
        higher storage capacity
      - more cells production
    - - unusual activity
        
        stem grow in 2 directions
        
        provides flexibility
        
        adaptive
  - - - increases in width
      - adventitous roots addition
      - occurs in palms
- - - - give rise to fascicular cambium
    - - mature parenchyma cells comes out of cell cycle arrest
      - connects each side with fascicular cambium
  - - - younger
    - - oldest
  - - - short, cuboidal
        
        storage parenchyma cells
        
        albuminous cell in gymnosperm
      - goes through periclinal cell division
        
        one continues to be cambial ray initial
        
        other give rise to secondary xylem or phloem
    - - long, tapered cells
        
        140-462 microns in dicots
        
        700-8700 microns in conifers
      - goes through longitudinal cell division
        
        one continues to be fusiform initial
        
        other give rise to secondary xylem or phloem
      - anticlinal wall
        
        located perpendicular to the cambium's surface
      - periclinal wall
        
        wall parallel to the circumference of cambium's surface
  - - - Ray initials
        
        grouped together in short vertical rows
        
        can be
        
        uniseriate
        
        one cell wide
        
        biseriate
        
        two cell wide
        
        multiseriate
        
        many cells wide
      - Fusiform initials
        
        regular horizontal rows
        
        storied cambium
        
        rare
        
        occur in few eudicots species
        
        tend to be dhor
        
        irregular
        
        nonstoried cambium
- - - - tracheids
      - vessel elements
      - fibers
      - sclereids
      - parenchyma
    - - derived from fusiform initials
      - contain tracheary elements
        
        blood vessels
        
        tracheids
        
        carry out longitudinal conduction of water
      - gives wood strength and flexibility
    - - derived from ray initials
      - simple
      - angiosperms
        
        contain only parenchyma
        
        store carbohydrates and nutrients
        
        upright cells
        
        procumbant cells
        
        arranged in rays
  - - - first wood formed
      - spring wood
      - have high proportion of wide vessels
    - - thick cuticle
      - less transpiration
      - summer wood
      - stronger, provides support
    - - early wood and late wood
  - - - contain gelatinous fibers with cellulose rich wall
      - prevent branch from dropping
- - - - also called phellogen
      - differ greatly from vascular cambium
    - - also called phellem celll
      - outer cell
    - - includes phellogen, phellem and phelloderm
    - - tissues outside of innermost cork cambium
    - - secondary phloem between vascular cambium and innermost cork cambium
  - - - color changes from green to tan
      - may take several years in some species
- - - - takes in and store water rapidly
- - - - new vessels surrounded by new cambium
      - parenchyma
        
        higher storage capacity
      - more cells production
    - - unusual activity
        
        stem grow in 2 directions
        
        provides flexibility
        
        adaptive
  - - - increases in width
      - adventitous roots addition
      - occurs in palms
- - - - contain elastic protein gluten
    - - main source of carbs in current world
    - - use as sweetener
      - partially ferment alcohol
    - - mostly used to feed domestic animals
      - high protein and beneficial lipids
  - - - domesticated in Africa, Asia and outh America
    - - originated in South America
      - high level of beta-carotene
- - - - rich in vitamin C
- - - - contains alkaloid nicotine
    - - contains morphine and codeine
    - - THC concentrated in carpellate flowers
  - - - Camellia sinensis
- - - - high energy
        
        gamma rays, cosmic rays, uv light
    - - PAR
        
        plants use it for photosynthesis
  - - - absorb certain wavelength
        
        get their color
      - chlorophyll a
        
        absorbs red and blue
        
        does not use high energy quanta
        
        cause the electron to be excited
        
        can be used in chemical reaction
        
        if not used, return to original state
      - absorption vs. action spectrum
    - - light released by pigment
    - - absorbs wavelength not absorbed by chlorophyll a
      - pass it to chlorophyll a
      - common types on land plants
        
        chlorophyll b
        
        good at resonance
        
        carotenoids
        
        poor at resonance
        
        transfer only about 10% of absorbed energy
        
        role is to protect chlorophyll a from excessive light
  - - - less number of chlorophyll b
      - absorb red light of 700 nm efficiently
      - Fx
        
        membrane found electron acceptor
        
        contain iron and sulfur group
        
        accepts electron from P700
        
        reduce it than pass it to ferredoxin
      - ferredoxin
        
        located at thylakoid membrane
        
        reducing agent
        
        pass the electron to enzyme
      - ferredxin-NADP+ reductase
        
        reduces NADP+ to NADPH
    - - chlorophyll a and b are equally present
      - reduces P700
      - plastocyanin
        
        donates electron to the chlorophyll of P700
        
        receives new electron from cytochrome b6/f complex
      - Q complex
        
        donate electron to cytochrome b6/f complex
        
        receives electron from phaeophytin
      - P680
        
        receives electron from water molecule
        
        donate it to Q complex
  - - - house enzymes and electron carries
      - membrane is not permeable to protons
    - - ADP+Pi -> ATP
- - - - molecule acceptor
      - contains carbon
    - - product of RuBP+CO2
      - 2 identical molecules
    - - enzyme that carries the reaction RuBP+CO2
      - one of the largest and complex protein
      - can constitute up to 30% of protein in a leaf
  - - - 3-phosphoglycerate
- - - - condense with 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde
        
        form fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate
    - - fructose-6-phosphate
      - glucose-6-phosphate
- - - - intensity and brightness
      - clear day= more photosynthetic activity
      - plants near equator receive more sunlight
      - summer time
        
        light is too intense
        
        protective measurement is necessary
    - - numbers of hours that sunlight is available
      - locations play huge role
        
        equator
        
        12 hrs of sunlight throughout the year
        
        near the poles
        
        24 hrs of daily sunlight during midsummer
        
        mid lattitude
        
        short winter days
        
        little photosynthetic activity
        
        long summer days
        
        more photosynthetic activity
    - - wavelength
      - color
        
        blue light
        
        deflected upward at dawn
        
        red light
        
        small impact on photosynthesis at dawn
  - - - palisade parachyma above/spongy mesophyll below
        
        absorbs CO
        
        poor at water conserving
    - - tightly packed leaf cells
        
        water conservation
        
        inefficient in dissolving CO2
    - - minimum water loss
  - - - carbon dioxide entry
      - water loss
    - - no carbon dioxide activity
      - retain water
  - - - water loss per molecule of CO2 absorbed
      - low ratio
    - - wasting process
- - - - converts light energy to chemical energy
      - use lights captured by pigments
    - - helps ATP to enter and drive the chemical reactions
    - - involves light energy
    - - ADP--> ATP
    - - ADP phosphorylated to ATP
  - - - lose of electron
      - do not carry as many electron as it supposed to
      - usually contain oxygen
    - - gain of electron
      - usually contain hydrogen
    - - forced electrons onto compounds
  - - - contains cofactor heme, iron group
      - carries electron to short distance
    - - transport electron within membrane
      - dissolve easily into the lipid component
    - - contains copper group
      - associated with chloroplast membranes
- - - - Metaphase
        
        metaphase plate
        
        cell center where chromosomes allign
        
        fragments of nucleus disappear
        
        Separase
        
        digest cohesion
        
        frees the chromatids
        
        numbers of chromosomes double
        
        size is halved
        
        chromosomes similar to G1 phase
      - Anaphase
        
        daughter chromosomes are pulled away
        
        deuterium oxide
        
        inhibitis chromosome movement
        
        inhibits microtubule depolymerization
        
        colchicine
        
        speed movement
      - Prophase
        
        Chromosomes condense
        
        guided by histone protein
        
        chromosomes reduced to 2-5 um
        
        nucleus is less visible
        
        animals, fungi, alagea
        
        centrioles migrate to opposite poles
        
        Kinetochore
        
        point of attachment between centromere and microtubules
        
        consist two layers of protein
      - Telophase
        
        complete nuclear envelope forms at each end
        
        chromosomes starts to uncoil
        
        nucleoli appears
        
        spindle depolymerizes and disappear completely
    - - Meiosis I
        
        Metaphase I
        
        metaphase plate
        
        spindle microtubules move to tetrads
        
        Prophase I
        
        similar to prophase in mitosis
        
        special interactions between chromosomes
        
        leptotene
        
        chromosomes begin to condense
        
        zygotene
        
        synapsis occur, homologous pair binds
        
        pachytene
        
        crossing over occurs
        
        diplotene
        
        chromosome begin to move away but do not seperate
        
        diakinisis
        
        homologous pair untangle, paired at centromere
        
        Anaphase I
        
        homologous pair seperate completely
        
        move to opposite pole
        
        Telophase I
        
        some time cell skip this stage
      - Meiosis II
        
        Metaphase II
        
        Anaphase II
        
        Prophase II
        
        Telophase II
  - - - identifies plane of division
      - location of new cell wall
    - - formation of phragmoplast
        
        trap dictysome vesicles
        
        two new primary walls and middle lamella form
        
        froms where the metaphase plate been
        
        inner microtubles depolymerize
        
        microtubules towards the edge polymerize
    - - includes phragmoplast, vesicle and walls
    - - set of microtubules, actin filaments and cytoplasm
      - helps with Vacuole division
- - - - Recovery from division
      - synthesis of nucleotide
      - Longest part of cell cycle
      - Cell growth
    - - Synthesis phase
      - genes of nucleus are replicated
      - genome
        
        entire complex of genes
      - Chromosomes
        
        attached genes in a linear sequences
        
        centromere
        
        located near the center
        
        telomere
        
        each end of chromosomes
      - Histones
        
        Protein complex
        
        Provides protection and gives structure to chromosomes
      - Chromatid
        
        each half of the doubled chromosome
      - Endoreduplication
        
        occurs in 80% of all maturing plants
        
        nucleus becomes gigantic
    - - prepare for division
      - synthesis of alpha and beta tubilins
        
        necessary for spindle microtubules
      - cell produce proteins
        
        help to process chromosomes
        
        breakdown nuclear envelope
- - - - smallest mutation
      - single base is converted to another base
    - - piece of DNA is lost
    - - addition of extra DNA
    - - DNA is put backwards during repair
  - - - causes mutation
      - UV light, X-rays and radiation from radioactive substance
      - nitrous acid
        
        reacts with cytosine
        
        gives DNA G-U base pair in place of G-C
  - - - insertion sequences
      - transposon
  - - - may cause it to code for different protein
- - - - F1 generation
    - - two identical alleles in a gene
    - - two different alleles in a gene
  - - - plant's own pollen fertilize its own eggs
  - - - expressed
  - - - different possibility of phenotype
- - - - genes occur close together on a chromosome
- - - - alleles of both parent
  - - - do not undergo mitosis
    - - down syndrome
- - - - oxygen as electron receptor
      - waste product = H2O
      - more efficient/generates more ATP
  - - - Less efficient
      - pyruvate as an electron acceptor
        
        lactic acid build up
      - C6H12O6-------->Lactic acid/ethanol+ATP
  - - - aerobic repiration
    - - fermentation
  - - - NADH is converted to heat directly
  - - - reduction of nitrate to amino acids
- - - - turns vinegar
    - - extra ethanol= fortified wine
  - - - dilluted/lower alcohol content
      - starch to sugar conversion
      - mash with less carbs is used
    - - Strong taste
      - higher alcohol content
      - not filtered
  - - - vodka, whikey
      - at least 20% alcohol content
    - - main ingredient in tequila
  - - - lower heart risk
    - - alcohol syndrome
      - death
      - addiction
- - - - optimal for good respiration
    - - differ in temperature
    - - respiration rate doubles
  - - - more oxygen in the roots
      - Plants
        
        no oxygen produced at night
        
        maintain full respiration
- - - - heterogeneous liquid
    - - hydrophobic tail
        
        water fearing
      - hydrophillic head
        
        water loving
    - - intrinsic
        
        immersed in lipid bilayer
      - extrinsic
        
        located outside membrane
  - - - formation of many compartments
        
        prevent from mixing of two substances
        
        membrane around organelles
    - - selectively permeable membrane
        
        allows the passage for selected ions
      - mostly lipids
        
        hydrophobic
  - - - requires energy
    - - excretion
      - nectar secretion by glands
    - - invagination formation in outer membrane
      - common in algae
    - - movement of charged substances
        
        assisted by proteins
- - - - stores genetic information
    - - stores water and salts
    - - mitochondria
        
        cellular respiration
        
        energy production (ATP)
        
        citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation
      - plastids
        
        similar to mitochondria
        
        photosynthesis by chloroplasts
        
        proplastid
        
        chlorophyll
      - ribosomes
        
        responsible for protein synthesis
        
        tRNA, mRNA, rRNA
      - endoplasmic recticulum
        
        rough ER
        
        ribosomes attached
        
        smooth ER
        
        lipid synthesis
        
        protein transport
      - microbodies
        
        basal body
        
        centriole, flagella, cilia
        
        peroxisomos and glyoxysmos
      - micro tubules
        
        act as cytoskeleton
        
        provides motility for organelles and cells
      - Plasma membrane #
        
        Covers the surface of protoplasm
        
        selectively permeable
- - - - involve in photosynthesis
      - numerous amount of chloroplasts
      - thin cell walls
        
        allows light and carbon dioxide to pass through readily
    - - secretion includes
        
        nectar
        
        fragnance
        
        mucilage
        
        resins
        
        oil
      - contain large amount of dictysomes and endoplasmic recticulum
      - metabolize sugar and minerals
    - - large, extensive plasma membrane
        
        used for short distance transport
        
        contains numerous molecular pumps
      - have extensive knobs, ridges and other inner growths
        
        increases surface area
    - - may create openings to release pollen or seeds
      - form spaces to allow diffusion of gases within leaves
    - - inexpensive metabolically
  - - - thin in some areas
      - thick in other, especially in corner
        
        require more glucose for their production
      - exhibits plasticity
        
        ability to form and deform by pressure and tension
  - - - thin primary and thick secondary
      - elastic
        
        deform but return to original state if pressure is released
    - - tracheids
        
        long and narrow with tapered ends, no perforations
        
        dead at maturity
        
        found in all vascular plants
      - vessel elements
        
        short, wide and have perpendicular walls
        
        found mostly flowering plants
    - - long fibers
        
        more flexible
        
        found in areas where strength and flexibility is required
        
        prevalent in wood of the most flowering plants
      - short sclereids
        
        isodiometric
        
        brittle and inflexible
        
        mass forms
        
        shells walnuts and coconuts
        
        "pits" or "stone" of cherries and peaches
- - - - miniature shoot with young leaves
      - covered with bud scales
  - - - one leaf on each node
    - - two leaves per node
    - - three or more leaves per node
    - - leaves arranged in two rows
      - corn, irises
    - - leaves arranged in four rows
      - occurs in species with opposite leaves
    - - leaves located at side
      - form spiral up the stem
  - - - vines
        
        long internodes
      - lettuce, cabbage
        
        short internodes
        
        tightly packed leaves
      - asparagus
        
        wide internodes
      - sprouts
        
        narrow
      - stallons
        
        runner
        
        long and thin internodes
        
        leaves do not expand
        
        allows it to expand without much energy
      - Bulbs
        
        short shoot with thick fleshy leaves
        
        onions, garlic
      - corms
        
        thick stems with thin peppery leaves
        
        crocus
- - - - prevent water loss in land plants
      - barrier against bacterial invasion, fungi and insects
      - protects plants from overheating in bright sunlight
    - - fatty substance
      - makes the wall impermeable to water
      - builds up cuticle
        
        resist digestive enzymes
        
        defense against pathogens
    - - guard cells
      - stomatal pore
        
        opens during daytime
        
        provides passage for carbon dioxide
    - - hair
      - elongate outwards
      - makes it hard for animal to chew on leaves
  - - - contains photosynthetic parenchyma
      - collenchyma
    - - contains specialized cells
    - - occurs in fleshy stems
      - open tissue w/ large intercellular spaces
  - - - conducts water and minerals
      - two types of conducting cells
        
        tracheids
        
        thin, narrow
        
        vessel elements
        
        wide
        
        efficient in transporting water
      - tracheary elements
      - secondary cell wall
    - - distributes sugar and minerals
      - sieve tube members
        
        precursor= sieve cells
        
        stay alive to function
      - companion cells
        
        control sieve tube members
        
        load sugars in and out of sieve tube members
- - - - primary xylem
      - primary phloem
      - fasicular cambium
        
        vascular cambium
        
        secondary xylem
        
        secondary phloem
    - - pith
        
        interfascular cambium
      - cortex
        
        cork cambium
    - - epidermis
        
        cork cambian
        
        cork
        
        phelloderm
  - - - longest time for growth before differentiation
    - - cells closest to metaxylem
    - - mature exterior cells
- - - - lower side of blade
    - - uper surface of blade
      - smooth
    - - Simple
        
        one part blade
      - Compound
        
        divided into several individual
        
        petiolule
        
        attaches leaflets
        
        rachis
        
        extension of petiole
        
        palmately compound
        
        leaflets attached to same point
        
        pinnately compound
        
        leaflets attached to individual rachis
  - - - expose blades to wind
      - cool the leaf
      - leaf absorbs fresh air
    - - lack petiole
      - Aeonium
  - - - agaves
      - grasses
      - irises
  - - - distributes water to leaves
      - collect sugars produced by photosynthesis
      - transport sugar to stems for storage
    - - reticulate venation
        
        occurs in basal angiosperm and eudicots
        
        netted pattern
      - parallel venation
        
        monocots with long, strap shaped leaves
        
        run parallel, side by side
        
        few connections
- - - - water loss through the epidermis
      - problematic in dry area
    - - flat, tubular
      - guard cells
      - trichomes
    - - prevalent in lower epidermis
      - fewer stomata in upper epidermis
        
        prevents fungi, bacteria from penetrating leaves easily
        
        prevents excessive water loss
    - - coat outer wall
      - retain water
  - - - also called palisade mesophyll
      - layer of cells in upper surface of leaves
      - main photosynthetic tissue in most plants
      - large surface
        
        allows maximum dissolution of carbon dioxide
    - - open, loose aerenchyma
      - allows carbon dioxide to diffuse rapidly
  - - - minor veins
        
        distributed from lateral veins
        
        release water from xylem
        
        lead sugar into phloem
      - Bundle sheath
        
        fibers around the vascular tissues
        
        prevents from insects penetration
      - bundle sheath extension
        
        mass of fibers above and below the vein
  - - - branch from stem vascular bundles
      - distinct or fused into single trace near petiole
      - arrangements
        
        ring, plate and many other
    - - function
        
        protect shoot apical meristem
        
        contribute to photosynthesis if large enough
        
        usually die early
- - - - Crassulaceae
      - Portulacaceae
      - Aizoaceae
    - - water conservation
      - reduction of surface area
    - - few air spaces
        
        reduce internal evaporative surface area
        
        less water loss through stomata
  - - - exists in plants for more than 2 years
      - resistant to animals, fungi, uv light and freezing temperature
  - - - thick cuticle
      - thick cell walls in epidermis and hypodermis
    - - evergreen plants
  - - - remain close to stem
      - not exposed to mechanical damage
    - - provide greater protection
  - - - ability to sense the contact with other objects
  - - - composed of large chlorophyllous cells
  - - - obtain nitrogen they need
    - - Nepanthes
      - Darlingtonia
      - Sarracenia
    - - move during capture
      - Drosera
    - - sense and respond to presence of insects
- - - - cells interior of protoderms growing outwards
        
        protrusion
      - rapid growth
        
        taller than shoot apical meristem
        
        meristematic cells
        
        cells at center differentiate into
        
        provascular tissue
        
        primary xylem and phloem
      - increases thickness
        
        initiates lamina
        
        establish midrib
    - - differentiation of vascular bundles, trichomes and stomata
      - petiole becomes distinct from midrib
  - - - initiated by shoot apical meristem
      - encircles the shoot apical meristem
      - Lamina
    - - inner surface of tube
    - - outer surface of tube
    - - stretch of protoxylem and protophloem
      - rapid differentiation of vessel elements and sieve tube members
      - more initiation of primary xylem, phloem and stomata
- - - - single prominant taproot
      - numerous small lateral roots
      - radicle
        
        embroyonic root
        
        give rise to taproot
    - - most monocots and some eudicots
      - radical dies during germination
      - adventitious roots
        
        do not arise on pre-existing roots
        
        increase absorptive and transport capacities
  - - - growth in length occurs
    - - by discrete apical meristem
      - extreme tips pushes through soil
    - - secreted by dictyosomes
      - lubricate passage of the root
      - causes soil to release nutrient ions
      - rich in carbohydrates and amino acids
        
        foster rapid growth of microbes around the tip
- - - - protect apical meristem
      - Provide stability to the root
    - - undergo cell division
      - small and meristematic when formed
      - differ as they push towards the side
  - - - mitotically inactive
      - more resistant to radiation and toxic chemicals
      - reserve of healthy cells
        
        become active when the apical meristem or root cap damaged
  - - - outermost cells
      - differentiate into epidermis
    - - in the center
      - develop in to primary xylem and phloem
    - - differentiate into root cortex
    - - differentiate into metaxylem and metaphloem
  - - - increase surface area
      - increase water and minerals absorption
    - - transport minerals from epidermis to vascular tissue
    - - water proof cell wall
      - cylindrical
      - Casparian strips
        
        bands of altered wall
        
        control the flow of minerals
  - - - dies and degenarate after several days
      - absorption of water/minerals greatly reduce
    - - unchanged
      - continue to mature
    - - have only Casparian strips
      - slow to develop
- - - - used to produce new shoots in autumn
    - - survival of storage perichyma cells
  - - - helps in respiration
      - provides support against powerful water currents
    - - brace the trunk
        
        prevents from wind from blowing it
      - upper side grows more rapidly
    - - transport nutrients and water to stem
      - act as stabilizers for stem
  - - - almost all woody forest plants
      - fungal hyphae invades the cells of the outermost cortex
    - - fungal hyphae penetrates upto endodermis
  - - - growth limiting factor
      - plants cannot use atmospheric nitrogen, N2
    - - conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into usable compound
    - - nitrogen fixing bacteria
      - symbiotic with legumes
    - - cortical cell division in inner cortex
      - provides way for Rhizobium to enter cytoplasm
  - - - spends most of its life growing inside cactus
- - - - causes endodermis to torn
  - - - formed root cap
      - protoxylem and protophloem differentiate
      - establish connection to the vascular tissue of the parent root
- - - - large population= less likely to die
    - - geology
      - topography
      - differ in types of soil
    - - S=cA^Z
  - - - benign enviroments
      - near equator
    - - more severe conditions
  - - - leads to habitat loss
- - - - interspecies competition
      - plants compete for
        
        light
        
        minerals
        
        water
    - - organisms consume shared resources
    - - resources restrict to one species
  - - - predator feeding rate
      - amount of time needed
      - predators functional response
        
        depends on prey density
    - - important
      - usually plants
      - attacked by primary consumer
    - - more competition, slow growth
    - - dN/dt=rN-aNP
      - simple
  - - - low prey pop = low predators pop
- - - - beavers dam used by other organisms
    - - new created substrates
      - animals become established
  - - - pollinators and the plants
    - - mutation that reduce costs and minimize benefits
- - - - primary producer
        
        usually plants
      - primary consumer
        
        herbivores
      - secondary consumer
        
        carnivores
- - - - abiological reproductive barrier
        
        physical, non living
        
        species divided
        
        can't interbreed
      - biological
        
        sympatric speciation
        
        prevent successful gene flow
        
        flower color, shape or fragnance