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Botany, Chapter 12: Transport Processes, Chapter 16: Genetics #, Chapter…
Botany
Chapter 12: Transport Processes
Diffusion, Osmosis, & Active Transport
Diffusion
random movement of particles in solution
high-low
through a membrane
osmosis
membranes
#
Permeability
Completely Impermeable
Selectively Permeable
Freely Permeable
protein channels
aquaporins
speed up
molecular pumps
ATP
types
Plasma membrane
govern movement out/in cell
vacuolar membrane
accumulation space
E.R. & dictyosome membranes
transport materials
intracelluar transport
Active Transport
Water Potential
#
Cells & Water Movement
lysis never happens to plant cells
cells strong enough for high water absorption
pressure potential can change alot
free energy
chemical potential
ability to do work
increased by
heat
raised pressure
raised elevation
decreased by
cold
reduced pressure
reduced elevation
components
pressure potential
measured in megapascals or bars
positive
compressed
negative
stretched
osmotic potential
number of particles
solutes effects
decrease free energy
matric potential
adhesion to cell walls, membranes, soil
always negative
movement
positive—negative
Water Available In Water
eutrophication
death from lack of oxygen
humans threaten water life
too much salt=bad
too much fresh water=bad
Water Availability In Air
supplied to land by
rain, fog, dew, frost, snow, hail, humidity
adaptations
help prevent death due to water loss
transpiration
water pulled out by air
protoplast
shrinks from cell wall
plant wilts
can lead to cell death
plasmolysis
incipient plasmolysis
point which protoplast pulled slightly away from wall
Short Distance Intercellular Transport
Guard Cells
#
stomatal pores
potassium pumps
Motor Cells
located at “joints”
help flex and fold to stimuli
Transfer Cells
plasmodesmata
fine cytoplasmic channels
pass thru primary cell walls
living cells are connected by it
symplast
protoplasm
one continuous mass
apoplast
wall and intercellular spaces
glands
intercellular space
freely move
nonglandular
cell wall
Long Distance Transport
Xylem
Properties of Water
cohesive
adhesive
Water Transport Through Xylem
Cavitation
breaking of water columns
Embolism
air bubble
cohesion tension hypothesis
transstomatal transpiration
transcuticular transpiration
Control of Water Transport by Guard Cells
blue light =best
#
adequate soil moisture
prevent heat stress
stress=abscisic acid
guard cells close
CAM plants
c3 metabolism
night
Phloem
pressure flow hypothesis
theoried
membrane bound molecular pumps
active transport
Chapter 16: Genetics
#
Cross
Types
Monohybrid Crosses
Crossing Heterozygotes w/ themselves
selfing
plants own pollen used to fertilize it’s own eggs
punnet square
#
explains proportions
1:2:1 ratio
Complete Dominance
heterozygote phenotype
dominant
showcased
Recessive
Test Crosses
cross involving plant in question and one that is homozygous recessive for the trait being studied
show pure-bred lines
Multiple Alleles
gene existing in many forms
dominance=complex
many different phenotypes possible
Incomplete Dominance
parental generation
first filial generation (F1)
F2 Generation
half of each but neither the same
heterozygous
different
incomplete dominance
1 more item...
homozygous
identical
only single character is analyzed
Dihybrid Crosses
Genes on the Same Chromosome
Linkage
recombinant chromosomes
homologous crossing over
recombination of alleles
parental type chromosomes
majority of the cells
like the parents
linkage group
set of genes known to be linked
Crossing Over
far apart
complex forms
Genes on Separate Chromosomes
Independent Assortment
#
alleles of one gene move independently of alleles of other gene
2 genes are studied
sex reproduction between 2 individuals
Replication of DNA
nuclear cell division
Meiosis or Mitosis
genetic diversity
DNA Replication-S Phase
form
replicon
“bubble”
ribonucleotides polymerized
#
short primer RNA (10 nucleotides long)
DNA Polymerase
DNA Synthesizing enzyme
adds deoxyribonucleotides to 3’ end
copies go opposite directions
Semiconservative replication
each strand of DNA acts as the template for making complementary
each double helix contains one new molecule and conserved one new one
replication fork
DNA uncoils and keeps uncoiling
ligated
attached to each other w/ covalent bonds
okazaki fragments
Doubles DNA
Mutations
Causes
Mutagen
Transposable elements
Insertion Sequence
#
Transposon
#
transposon mutagenesis
beneficial metabolic pathway research
Effects
mostly harmful
natural selection preserves beneficial ones
Types
point
single base
Somatic
mutations in cells that never lead to sex cells
Deletion
Insertion
Inversion
flipped/swapped
DNA Repair Processes
DNA repair mechanisms
remove mutations
can’t be TOO efficient
any change in DNA
Multiple Genes for One Character: Quantitative Trait Loci
Epistasis
having multiple genes for each trait
quantitative trait loci
genes or other portions of DNA associated with traits
complex
Pleiotropic Effects
multiple phenotype effects of one mutation
Other Aspects of Inheritance
Multiple Sets of Chromosomes and Gene Families
polyploid
all plants with 2 sets of chromosomes
ploid levels
paralogs
duplicates of wild type allele
nondisjunction
gene family
multiple copies
has inactive genes
raw material for evolution of genes
Lethal Alleles
deadly
elimination of allele
Maternal Inheritance
biparental
2 parents-equal
all cells in nucleus undergo
uniparental
zygote obtains all plastid and mitochondrion genomes from maternal parent
parents
ovule
pollen
variegation
spots/sectors of diff color in green plants
Mendels Pea Plants
genetics -science of inheritance
#
genes occur in multiple forms -
alleles
genotype
exact types of alleles
phenotype
the expression of the alleles
Chapter 20: Nonvascular Plants: Mosses, Liverworts, & Hornworts
Division Bryophyta: Mosses
The Gametophyte Generation
Morphology
gametophores
leafy stems
grow close together
apical meristem growth
thin
no stomata
Water Transport
innermost cortex cells -
hydroids
conduct water and minerals
leptoids
- like companion cells
most often
lacking hydroids/leptoids
capillary action
transports water
rhizoids
small, trichome-like, multicellular
penetrate substrate
no absorption
Development
spore germinates
chlorohyllous cell
mitosis
protonema
cells
apical growth
gametophores
Reproduction
#
gametophore
produces
gametangia
antheridia
sterile cells/sperm cells
microgametangia
archegonia
eggs
megagametangia
occur on same gametophore
antheridium breaks open and goes to sucrose from archegonia secretion
The Sporophyte Generation
never independent
gametophyte assists
sporangium
calyptra
capsule
peristome teeth
all mosses=homosporous
Metabolism & Ecology
can’t withstand dry
compensate
grow in moist habitats
tolerant of dessication
no root penetration
grow on impervious surfaces
no retainment of water
establishment of other species
improve microhabitat for seedlings
thrive everywhere
Class Bryopsida
atrichum
bryum
buxbaumia
dicranum
fissidens
funaria
grimmia
mnium
physcomitrium
polytrichum
Class Sphagnopsida
Sphagnum
Class Andreaeopsida
Andreaea
neuroloma
Classification of Nonvascular Plants
#
past all grouped together in Bryophyta
Division Hepatophyta: Liverworts
The Gametophyte Generation
leafy liverworts
thallose liverworts
air pores
sex
antheridia
sperm
archegonia
egg
The Sporophyte Generation
foot, seta , calyptra, sporangium
Class Hepatopsida
Order Marchantiales
Conocephalum
Marchantia
Reboulia
Riccia
ricciocarpus
Order Sphaerocarpales
Riella
Sphaerocarpos
Order Monocleales
Monoclea
Order Metzgeriales
Fossombronia
Pallavicinia
Pellia
Order Jungermanniales
Cephaloziella
Order Haplomitriales
Haplomitrium
Characteristics of Nonvascular Plants
no vascular tissue
multicellular sporangia & gametangia
reproductive cells surrounded by sterile cells
true parenchyma
apical meristem growth
#
have
cuticle
over body and usually have
stomata
small
NO SEEDS
Division Anthocerotophyta:
Hornworts
The Gametophyte Generation
gametophores
thin edges-thicker center
chlorophyllous lamellae
grow upward
The Sporophyte Generation
basal meristem
sporangium tissue
Class Anthocerotopsida
Order-Anthocerotales
Anthoceros
Dendroceros
Megaceros
Notothylos
Phaeoceros
small, thalloid plants
single layer chloroplast
sporophyte top
gametophyte bottom
Chapter 21: Vascular Plants Without Seeds
The Microphyll Line of Evolution: Lycophytes
Morphology
microphyll
“almost” leaf
evolution from small enations
evolution of true roots
growth, absorption, anchor
vascular cambium flaw
cells troubled by radial longitudinal division
Heterospory
extinct lycophytes
sporangia clustered
cones or
strobili
protect
homosporous
heterosporous
megaspores
megagametophytes
microspores
microgametophytes
necessary for seed evolution
#
Extant Genera
Selaginellas
small flap of tissue
ligule
heterosporous
lycopodium
microphylls
no secondary growth
heterotrphic
isoetes
heterosporous
sporangia extensively
additional cortex parenchyma
CAM
no stomata
convergent evolution
endosporial development
The Megaphyll Line of Evolution: Euphyllophytes
Trimerophytes
overtopping
pseudomonopodial branching
Origin of Megaphylls (Euphylls)
leaves on gametophytes of nonvascular plants
enations / microphylls of zosterophyllophytes and lycophytes
megaphylls
leaves that evolved from branch systems
euphyllophytes
telome
theory
megaphyll evolution
planation
webbing
Monilophytes
#
united by synamorphies
roots have exarch xylem
have megaphylls
have 30 kilo base inversion of plastic DNA
Equisetophytes
horsetails / scouring rushes
no secondary growth
Ferns
Eusporangia & Leptosporangia
eusporangium
surface cells undergo divisions
multilayered plate of cells
leptosporangia
Psilotum & Tmesipteris
leaf trace
diverges from siphonostele
leave small segment of vascular cylinder as paranchyma
leaf gap
leptosporangiate ferns
most popular and known
Early Vascular Plants
Rhyniophytes
Xylem Structure of Early Vascular Plants
no pith
xylem mass -
protostele
endarch
protoxylem located in center
metaxylem on outer edge
siphonostele
evolved later
seed plants & ferns
pith present
sporangia
terminal
open along the side
Zosterophyllophytes
no secondary growth
sporangia
lateral
opened transversely (across top)
small herbs
protoxylem - exarch
metaxylem in center
xylem mass and protoxylem on edges as groups next to phloem
enations
- outgrowths
increased photosynthetic surface area
#
The Term “Vascular Cryptograms”
ferns & fern allies
vascular tissue & lack seeds
symplesiomorphies
synapomorphies
shared derived features
shared ancestral features
life cycle
dibiontic
multicellular gametophyte & sporophyte
monobiontic
one multicellular generation
transformation theory
dibontic life cycle
diverted into two clades
vascular plants
nonvascular plants
interpolation hypothesis
#
sporophyte had to exist
by zygote dividing mitotically
Chapter 7: Roots
Roots
Storage Roots
Prop Roots
stabilization
narrow stem transplants
extensive growth thru the air
Aerial Roots
waterproof barrier of dead cells
dangle freely
Contractile Roots
bury
changes depth (contracts)
Haustorial Roots
Parasites
adhere firmly to host
draw nutrients
no soil growth
Strangler Figs
host death
no soil seed germination
Internal Structure
Root Cap
thick layer of cells
mucigel
lube
soil nutrients
cell multiplication
dynamic equilibrium
Root Apical Meristem
localized growth
quiescent center
inactive central region
Zone of Elongation
behind apical
division / expansion
cells enlarge
outer =protoderm
epidermis
permeable tissues
Zone of Maturation
root hairs grow
increase absorption
endodermis
casparian strips
control mineral intake into xylem water stream
impermeable
Mature Portions
root hair
die & degenerate
passage cells
casparian strips
root pressure
water
endodermis maturation
lignin
watertight sheath
Modifications
Nodules
formed by bacteria in infection thread that forms a module after mitosis
aids in use of Nitrogen
Nitrogen Fixation
chem conversion of atmospheric Nitrogen into usable compounds
Mycorrhizae
both organisms benefit
ectomycorhizzal
woody forrest plants
fungal hyphae penetrate between outer root cortex cells (no cell penetration)
endomycorrhizal
herbaceous
penetration of cell (not thru casparian strip)
Functions
Anchor
orientation
absorb
water & minerals
Produce Hormones
cytokinin
gibberellin
External Structure
Organization of Root Systems
NO pith
lateral roots
arise in pericycle
Radicle
embryonic root
taproot
Fibrous root system
similar size roots
radicle death
adventitious roots
increase absorption/transportation
taproot system
ex. carrots
Structure of Individual Roots
root tip
growth
root apical meristem
Origin and Development of Lateral Roots
cell divisions in pericycle
root primordium swells
apical pushes thru endodermis and epidermis
Chapter 8: Structure of Woody Plants
Initiation
Provascular Tissue
Fascicular
Vascular Cambium
produces secondary plant body
Cells
Arrangement of Cambial Cells
fusiform
regular horizontal rows
storied
irregular no pattern
nonstoried
ray
short vertical rows
Ray initials
Phloem Rays
Xylem Rays
short and cuboidal
Fusiform Initials
axial xylem
axial phloem
long, tapered cells
periclinal wall
parallel
anticlinal wall
perpendicular
Pith
Interfascicular
Secondary Xylem
Types of Wood Cells
axial system
fusiform
tracheary elements
longitudinal conduction
hardwoods
fibers-stronger
softwoods
less fibers-softer
radial system
ray
parenchyma
ray cells
upright
procumbent
ray tracheids
horizontal rectangular cells
secondary walls
circular bordered pits
Growth Rings
quiescence
stress, winter, drought
no cell division
annual ring-1 year growth
early wood
spring wood
high vessel count
first wood
late wood
summer wood
less vessels
diffuse porous
vessels form constantly
ring porous
vessels restricted to early wood
indistinct
Heartwood & Sapwood
Heartwood
center
dark, dry
one annual ring converted to heartwood each year
Sapwood
outer
lighter, moister
new layer formed by vascular cambium every year
Reaction Wood
tension wood
angiosperms
upper side of branch=wider
rich in cellulose
little lignin
gravity
eccentric
compression wood
conifers
underside =wider
less cellulose
more lignin
wood
Outer Bark
Cork and the Cork Cambium
Initiation
phellogen
cells =cuboidal
cell division
inner cell =remains cork cambium
outer cell =cork cell
periderm
maturation
protection
short lived
new cork
keeps out pathogens
maintain water
Lenticels and Oxygen Diffusion
Blocks absorption of oxygen
tissues outside inner cork cambium
inner bark
all secondary phloem between vascular cambium and innermost cork cambium
Secondary Phloem
#
formed from vascular cambium
no arrangement
only innermost layer of phloem capable of conduction
Secondary Growth in Roots
Anomalous Forms of Growth
Anomalous Secondary
Roots of Sweet Potatoes
Included Phloem
Unequal Activity of the Vascular Cambium
Secondary growth in Monocots
Unusual Primary Growth
Chapter 18: Classification and Systematics
#
Other Types of Classification Systems
Artificial Systems of Classifications
easy plant identification
key characters
Classification Systems for Fossils
combines artificial and natural systems
understand evolution
form genera
Levels of Taxonomic Categories
species
set of individuals closely related
genera
closely related species
Family
Order
Class
Division
Kingdom
end in -phyta
end in -opsida
end in -ales
grouped genera
end in -aceae
monophyletic
natural
polyphyletic
unnatural
species epithet
#
taxon
Taxonomic Studies
explorations
hunt for new food, ornamental, and beauty
preliminary studies
international code of botanical nomenclature
declare new species
type specimen
in
herbariums
isotopes
Cladistics
Understanding Cladograms
cladogram
diagram showing evolutionary patterns
node
=branch
divergence of 1 taxon into 2
has common ancester
clade
nodes and branches from common ancester
common ancestor
most recent
apomorphy
symplesiomorphy
a shared ancestral condition
paraphyletic group
does not contain all decendants
parsimony
simple hypothesis
not simple?
unresolved polychotomy
Cladograms and Taxonomic Categories
basal angiosperms
eudicots
method of analyzing phylogenetic evolutionary relationships
synapomorphies
#
homologous features
common ancestor
Determination
scanning electron microscopy
plastids
ranges of metabolism
DNA sequencing
homoplasies
analagous features
convergent evolution
no common ancestry
natural selection pressure
The Major Lines of Evolution
#
3 Domains
Bacteria
cyanobacteria
chrlorophyll a
Archaea
Eukarya
Kingdom Plantae
Phylogeny
hereditary relationships of any group of organisms
systematics
understanding of evolutionary lines
nomenclature
naming
Chapter 19:
Algae and the Origin of Eukaryotic Cells
#
Origin of Eukaryotic Cells
DNA structure
prokayotes
naked no proteins
short circles
Eukaryotes
complex
histones
long
Nuclear Structure & Division
prokaryotes
DNA in cytoplasm
no nucleus
mitosis & meiosis
eukaryotes
dna in nucleus
meiotic nuclear division
Organelles
prokaryotes
no membrane bound organelles
eukaryotes
flagella and cilia
Origin of Mitochondria and Plastids: The Endosymbiont Theory
prokaryotes first
endosymbiont theory
cleavage like prokaryotes lack microtubles
Origin of Mitochondria
Prokaryote evolved to having eukaryotic features
bacterium
engulfed
autogenous theory
endomembrane system
mitochondria and plastids
Origin of Plastids
arise by photosynthetic component
cyanobacteria ?
primary endosymbiosis
gave rise to red & green algae
glaucophytes
small group of algae
secondary endosymbiosis
euglenoids
green algae
heterokonts
#
two flagella
Flagella Types
nucleomorph
4DNA Types
Types of Cytokinesis
cleavage furrow similar to animals
occurs by phycoplast
endosymbiosis
live inside together- both benefit
early evolution
protozoans & algae
animals & fungi
embryophytes
#
chloroplast
Dinoflagellates
Oomycetes
red tide
Brown Algae & Their Relatives: The Heterokonts
Brown Algae
littoral zone
Diatoms
Yellow-Green Algae
diverse
Golden Brown Algae
#
Red Algae
color due to phycoerythrin
phyocobilin
floridean starch
excess photosynthate
multicellular
Green Algae
Body Construction
Motile colonies
Nonmotile Colonies
Filamentous Body
Membranous body
Parenchymous body
plasmodesmata
Coenocytic/Siphonous Body
Karyokinesis w/o cytokinesis
Life Cycles
cell cycle
w/ meiosis & syngamy
dibontic
alternation of generations between haploid & diploid
monobiontic
specialization occurs in the one free living generation
Representative Genera of Green Algae
Unicellular Species
Motile Colonial Species
Filamentous Species
Laminar Species
Coenocytic Species
Parenchymatous Species
Green Algae & Embryophytes
Euglenoids
Chapter 5: Tissues and the Primary Growth of Stems
Basic Types of Cells
Cells
Collenchyma
primary walls
thick & thin areas
alive(mature)
pectins
plastic support
OR bands near vascular bundles
layer under epidermis
more glucose expenditure
absorb water
Sclerenchyma
primary wall
secondary wall
thick
lignified
types
Mechanical
sclereids
#
short & cuboidal
dead(mature)
both elastic 2nd wall
inflexible
fibers
long
flexible
dead
alive
storage
active metabolism
starch/ CA oxalate
plasmodesmata
lignin
waterproof
no secondary wall
pits
Conducting
Tracheids
long & narrow
tapered ends
dead (mature)
vascular plants
no perforations
Vessel elements
short & wide
perpendicular ends
perforations 1-2
dead(mature)
transports H20
Lignin-strength,waterproof
Parenchyma
primary walls
thin
alive(mature)
active metabolically
types
Glandular
secrete nectar, fragrances, mucilage, resins, and oils
few chloroplasts
sugar/mineral transport
Chlorenchyma
numerous chloroplasts
photosynthesis
Transfer
Membrane transport
increase S.A.
pump
short distances
many functions
mature death
little glucose expenditure
absorb water
Plant Body
Primary
Secondary
wood, bark
woody
primary -> secondary
roots, stems, leaves
herbaceous
herb= no wood
Internal Organization of Stems: Arrangement of Primary Tissues
epidermis
outermost
single living parenchyma cells
protection
cutin
impermeable
fatty
cuticle
guard cells
stomatal pore
stoma
daytime
CO2
absorption
waxes
#
Cortex
interior
cells
compact
Vascular Tissues
xylem
#
conducts
water & minerals
larger
Phloem
#
distributes
sugars & minerals
Vascular bundles
xylem & phloem =
parallel
collateral
interior cortex
External Organization of Stems
shoot
stem
axis
terminal bud
leaves, flowers, buds
nodes
internodes
leaf axil
Phylotaxy-arrangement of leaves
angiosperms
basal
waterlilies, magnolias, laurels
eudicots
roses, asters, maples
monocots
grasses lilies, cattails, palms, bromeliads
Stem Growth and Differentiation
apical meristems
mitosis
cytokinesis
primary growth
primary tissues
subapical meristems
below apical
protoderm
#
epidermal cells
early
provascular tissues
xylem & phloem
young
ground meristem
pith & cortex
young
Chapter 6: Leaves
#
External Structure
leaf blade
flat & wide
add S.A.
Simple
one part
Compound
divided parts
leaflets
pinnately
individual points along rachis
palmately
same point
petiolule
veins
monocots
parallel venation
eudicots
reticulate venation
dorsal surface
bottom
large veins
ventral surface
upper
smooth
Petioles
stalk
no petioles
sessile leaf
leaf shape
plant identification
margin
apex
base
abscision zone
leaf cut
scar
Internal Structure
epidermis
water loss
transpiration
waterproof & translucent
stomata
bottom=more
hairy
waxy
cutin
mesophyll
ground tissues
upper
palisade parenchyma
main photosynthetic tissue
lower
spongy
aerenchyma
petiole
transition between stem and bottom
stipules
vascular bundles
Vascular Tissue
between the two
midrib
lateral veins
minor veins
release water from xylem
load sugar into phloem
midrib & lateral
bundle sheath
bundle sheath extension
Initiation and Development
Basal Angiosperms & Eudicots
Monocots
conduction not interrupted
apical meristem
leaf primordium
protrusion
Morphology & Anatomy
modified
#
succulent leaves
water conservation
reduced photosynthesis =
thick
nitrogen procurement
insect traps
protection
bud scales
small
short petiole
tough
waxy
produce thin layer of corky bark
spines
no mesophyll
needle
closely packed fibers
mature
lignin
harden
support
tendrils
sense contact
indefinite growth
sclerophyllous foliage leaves
thick cuticle
abundant waxes
leaves of conifers
also have thick cuticle
thick cell walls
simple leaves
Kranz anatomy
C4 metabolism
bundle sheaths
XL chlorophyll
arid environments
function
photosynthesis
Chapter 17: Population Genetics and Evolution
Population Genetics
gene pool
Factors that Cause the Gene Pool to Change
Accidents
events where an organism cannot adapt
natural phenomena
Artificial Selection
#
process in which humans alter gene pool
selective breeding
desirable qualities
Natural Selection
#
“survival of the fittest”
changes to gene pool
population sufficient to maturity
progeny differ in alleles
most important *evolution
offers genetic diversity
differential survival
Others
plants do not have intention or decision making skills
Mutation
occur continuously
depend mainly on population size
total alleles in sex cells of population
Situations in which Natural Selection does not Operate
#
no operation in identical populations
must need competitors and reasons to adapt
Multiple Selection Pressures
allele benefits can depend on habitat
become more or less advantageous
abundance of different alleles and it’s increase or decrease
Speciation
Phylectic
#
gene flow
Vegetation Propagation
small mobile pieces that reproduce vegetatively
Seed Dispersal
fall close to parent
can be carried by wind, water, animals
Pollen Transfer
one full haploid genome
dispersed rapidly by birds, winds, insects
movement of alleles physically thru space
gradually becomes so changed that it =new species
Divergent
Reproductive Isolation
Biological Reproductive Barriers
any biological phenomena that prevents gene flow
flower color, shape, fragrance etc.
speciation
sympatric
isolated but grow together
prezygotic isolation mechanisms
evolutionary changes due to differences in large populations
act before a zygote can be formed
Postzygotic internal isolation barriers
two sub populations considered separate
hybrid sterility
sterile plant
failure of synapsis
hybrid inviability
zygote dies early in development
Abiological Reproductive Barriers
any physical, nonliving feature that prevents two pops from exchanging genes
speciation
allopatric/geographic
species divided and can’t interbreed
mountains, rivers, desserts , oceans etc.
Adaptive Radiation
special case
diverge rapidly into many new species over short time
due to new habitat w/ less stress
can happen on mainland in sudden environmental changes
offspring resemble “founder”
new alleles build up fast
homogenous
genetic drift
change in gene pool erratically
heterogenous
original species, new species, side species,
Convergent Evolution
distinct species evolve to resemble each other
occupy similar habitat
Rates of Evolution
very slow
showcased by phenotypes
difficult to identify loss
Evolution and the Origin of Life
#
#
Conditions on Earth before the Origin of Life
Chems. Present in Atmosphere
mostly hydrogen
second atmosphere
reducing atmosphere
Energy Sources
complex chem is second atmosphere
sun
heat
radioactive decay
radiation
volcanoes, electrical storms, intense lightning
intense energy
planetary cooling
accumulation of lakes oceans streams etc.
Chems. Produced Chemosynthetically
plausible model of chemosynthetic hypothesis
Formation of Polymers
monomers had to polymerize in the early ocean
Aggregation and Organization
into masses with organization and metabolism
fatty acids
heterotrophs
had some simple metabolism
no genetic storing
no natural selection
genetics introduced
efficiency=mutations
Early Metabolism
aggregates =heterotrophs
Oxygen
Oxidizing atmosphere
from early second atmosphere
evolution of chlorophyll a
rust
sedimentary rocks showcase age
critically important for all life
especially us humans
conditions for aerobic resp.
Presence of Life
long series of slow transitions
blurred line between living and nonliving
chemosynthesis
chemical and phys processes that allowed life
Chapter 26: Community Ecology
#
Beneficial Interactions Between Species
mutualistic relationships
both benefit
facilitation
one organism benefits
facilitate the presence of another
nurse plants
alter below them to be favorable
primary succession
newly created substrates
from ice sheets / volcanoes
natural selection favors reduced costs
Diversity
Diversity & Scale
scale matters
large=more diverse
relationship between area and species richness
species-area relationship
S=cA^z
Whittaker
alpha
gamma
beta
measures diversity
species abundance distribution
look for rare
Diversity & Latitude
near equator
high diversity
amazons-benign environments
far from equator
low diversity
polars- severe environments
temperate conditions - new adapations
earth was warmer
previous evolutions from tropical conditions
checklists
richness
Interconnectedness of Species: Food Chains and Food Webs
#
primary producers
primary consumers
secondary consumers
keystone species
dramatically affect structure of community
improvement and understanding of community ecology is dire to restore and maintain our environment
Community
#
group of species occurring together
same time & place
predictable sequence of changes
succession
climax community
stability returns
restoration
live harmoniously with nature
farming
#
habitat loss
habitat fragmentation
Predator-Prey Interactions
One Predator, One Prey
predator
#
functional response
handling time
consumption time
feeding rates
time finding new prey
consumer
prey
producer
prey density
amount
zero growth isocline
line indicating pop. stability
coexisting
Lotka-Volterra Model
Rosenzeig-MacArthur model
more realistic
paradox of enrichment
too much improvement
loss of both species
maximum sustained yield
fixed effort harvesting
fixed quota harvesting
Predator Selection Among Multiple Prey
factors to selecting
probability
abundant species preferred
hard to find rare ones
decision to attack
thorny, hard, small
successful consumption
optimal foraging theory
examines interactions of why????
optimal diet model
predictions for choices
prefer prey yielding most energy per handling time
high yield prey scarce
convert to low yield prey
prey know what not to eat and what to eat
probability of profitable prey is always preferred
Competition Between Species
resource
factor that leads to increased growth rates
maximum equilibrium
competition
Chapter 9: Flowers & Reproduction
#
Inflorescences & Pollination
inflorescence
collective visual signal to pollinators
many flowers grouped together
control timing of initiation, maturation, opening of flowers
arrangements
determinate
indeterminate
Flower Structure & Cross Pollination
Cross Pollination
cross pollination
pollination from different individual
self pollination
pollination by flower or other flower on same plant
decreased self pollination
Stamen & Style Maturation Times
younger flowers better pollinators
pollen loves briefly
Stigma & Pollen Incompatibility
self pollination inhibited by
compatibility barriers
chem rxns between pollen & carpels
prevent growth
Monoecious & Dioecious Species
essential organs
stamens & carpels
nonessential organs
sepals & petals
imperfect flower
lack essential organs
perfect flower
has essential organs
monoecy
monoecious
staminate ON carpellate together
variation
dioecy
dioecious
life cycle
microgametophytes
megagametophytes
staminate sporophytes
carpellate sporophytes
staminate OR carpellate alone
Animal Pollinated Flowers
improved evolution
coevolution
flower became adapted for insect
insect adapted to efficient exploitation of the flower
actinomorphic / regular
radially symmetrical
zygomorphic
bilaterally symmetrical
Wind Pollinated Flowers
no petal mutations
large stigmatic surface area
growth pattern of plant pop
Ovary Position
long styles & stamen filaments
bury ovaries deep in flower
inferior ovary
epigynous
ovary above flower parts
superior ovary
hypogynous
intermediate level ovary
half-inferior
perigynous
Asexual Reproduction
#
fragmentation
self sufficient individual parts
Sexual Reproduction
The Plant Life Cycle
Sporophyte generation
DIPLOID
spores
meiosis
HAPLOID
mitosis
entire new haploid plant
gametophyte
synagamy
zygote
1 more item...
produce
gametes
mammalian
2 more items...
oogamous
2 more items...
haploid
life cycle
alternation of generations
2 generations
heteromorphic generations
complex
3 distinct plants
Flower Structure
floral apendages
Sepals
#
calyx
Stamens
#
male
2 parts
filament
anther
pollen produced
microsporocytes
meiosis
4 microspores
1 more item...
Carpels
3 main parts
stigma
catches pollen grain
style
elevates stigma
ovary
megaspores produced here
placentae
ovules
funiculus
1 more item...
nucellus
2 more items...
integument & micropyle
Petals
#
corolla
more pigments
pedicel
flower stalk
receptacle
very end of axis
complete flower
#
incomplete flower
#
Gametophytes
Microgametophyte
microspores
nucleus
develops on side of pollen grain
mitotically divide
generative cell
2 sperm cell
1 more item...
lens shape
vegetative cell
large
Megagametophyte
megaspore
haploid nuclei in single undivided cell
multinucleate megagametophyte =
embryo sac
nuclei
migrate thru cytoplasm
pulled by microtubles
7 Celled Megagametophyte
1 Central Cell
large
2 polar nuclei
3 Antipodal Cells
small
Egg Apparatus
2 Synergids
Egg
megagamete
Fertilization
Plasmogamy
fusion of protoplasts
Karyogamy
fusion of nuclei
sperms contributes only nucleus
loses protoplasm thru synergid
endosperm nucleus
triploid
Double fertilization
endosperm
nourishes development of zygote
Embryo & Seed Development
#
zygote
small cluster of cells
suspensor
pushes embryo deep into endosperm
radicle
embryonic root
epicotyl
embryonic stem
hypocotyl
root/shoot junction
seeds
albuminous
endosperm
exalbuminous
absent endosperm
mature seed
seed coat
integuments that surrounded the nucellus
Fruit Development
growth
pericarp
3 layers
mesocarp
middle layer
flesh
endocarp
innermost layer
tough pit or thin
exocarp
outer layer
skin peel
entire fruit wall
may include 1 or all
Fruit Types & Seed Dispersal
True Fruits & Accessory Fruits
true
ovarian tissue
accessory
false ; novarian tissue
simple
most common
develops from single ovary or the fused ovaries of one flower
aggregate
separate carpels one gynoecium fuse during development
multiple
individual fruits of an inflorescence fuse into one fruit
Classification of Fruit Types
dry
not eaten typically
indehiscent
dehiscent
fleshy
eaten during natural seed distribution process
Respiration
#
#
Types of Respiration
#
Aerobic
Obligate aerobes -die w/o Oxygen
Requires Oxygen as Final E- Acceptor
#
MORE EFFICIENT
Glycolysis
#
Citric Acid Cycle
Oxidative Phosphyloration
Electron Transport Chain
chemiosmotic gradient of hydroxyl ions and protons
Relates backwards w/ Glucogeneosis
NaDH
Lithotrophs
autotroph
heterotroph
Anaerobic
Obligate Anaerobe -Oxygen Kills
#
Glucose is broken down= 2ATP (FERMENTATION)
LESS EFFICIENT
ATP uses
#
protein synthesis
nucleic acid replication
microtubule assembly
ion transport
Without Oxygen
Thermogenic Resp.
babies
brown fat
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Meristematic cells produce ribose
Lipids
Catabolic metabolism
Glycerol
3 Fatty Acids
Beta Oxidation
Acetyl CoA
Heat Generating Respiration
Environmental and Internal Factors
Temperature
Increase
Decrease Resp.
Decrease
Increase Resp.
Lack of Oxygen
nightime= NO oxygen production
Internal Regulation
-process that breaks down complex carbon into simpler molecules & generates ATP
Chapter 10 Energy Metabolism: Photosynthesis
Energy and Reducing Powers
Energy Carriers
endergonic
ATP
Methods of Synthesizing
Chemiosmotic Photophosphorylation
sunlight
Chloroplasts
stroma
1 more item...
thylakoid lumen
#
#
1 more item...
ESSENTIAL
ATP Synthetase
2 more items...
Substrate Level Phosphorylation
No Oxygen
Cytosol
Oxidative Phosphorylation
with oxygen
Mitochondria
ADP to...
reduced/oxidized
reducing agents
#
oxidizing agents
#
NAD+ & NADP+
NADH & NADP+
main carrier
other carriers
cytochromes
Plastoquinones
Plastocyanin
entropy
disorder
1st & 2nd Law
Photosynthesis
#
#
light
electromagnetic radition spectrum
wavelengths
Pigment
#
chlorophyll
a
#
#
main photosynthetic pigment
3 more items...
b
resonance
aldehyde group
accessory
#
carotenoid
absorbance
green
fluorescence
particles/photons/quanta
CO2 + H2O
nontoxic
carbohydrates
autotrophs
plant energy
RXN Centers
Photostems 1
#
chlorophyll a.
acceptor
P700
ferredoxin
NADP+ reductase
plastocyanin
Photostems 2
pheophylin
acceptor
P680
water
cytochrome b6/f complex
electrons
zscheme
2 stages
Thylakoid Reactions
water+light
ATP & NADPH
membrane bound carriers
required source of electrons & energy
Stromal Reaction
dark
calvin benson cycle (C3)
#
CO2
#
inside chloroplast
#
Environmental and Internal Factors
light
quality
quanitity
duration
Leaf Structure
#
water
#
Metabolism
C4
Kranz
RUBP carboxylase
photorespiration
Crassulacean Acid (CAM)
C3
rubisco
Anabolic
anabolic rxns
polysaccharides & fats
NADPH & ATP
Glucose
Starch
long term
no absorption
amylose amylopectin
Intermediate
absorb water by osmosis (BAD)
glucogensis
#
short term
Chapter 25: Populations and Ecosystems
#
Plants in Relationship to their Habitat
Habitat
Abiotic Components of the Habitat
Soil Factors
pioneers
first plants to invade // tolerate severe conditions
nitrogen fixing prokaryotes
A horizon
uppermost
zone of leaching
debris
B horizon
middle layer
zone of deposition
nutrient// humus&clay
C horizon
deep layer
parent rock// rock fragments
Latitude & Altitude
locations affect light hours
Disturbance
fires, floods, avalanches, etc.
Climate
temp, rain, humidity, wind, etc.
tolerance range
between low-high extremes
nonliving / physical phenomena
Biotic Components of the Habitat
Plant Self
modifies habitat
beneficial-neutral-detrimental
???
Other Plant Species
interactions
beneficial
mutualism
disadvantageous
competition
competitive exclusion
less adapted species is excluded
niche
set of conditions
ecotypes
tests
transplant experiments
plants change sites
common garden
Organisms Other than Plants
animals, fungi, prokaryotes etc.
mutualism between animals
frugivores
seed dispersal by fruit eating animals
commensal relationships
one species benefits, other unaffected
Predation
one species benefits, other harmed
herbivory
browsing
eating twigs or leaves of shrubs
where herbivores eat plants
grazing
eating herbs
pathogenic
fungi & bacteria
mutualism
mycorrhizal fungus transport of phosphate
living factors
set of conditions in life cycle
operational habitat
aspects definitely affecting plant
The Structure of Ecosystems
#
Physiognomic Structure
physical size & shape of organisms
its distribution in relation to others
life forms
raunkiaer means of surviving stress
Temporal Structure
changes an ecosystem undergoes over time
Species Composition
number and diversity of species coexisting
depend on climate
Trophic Levels
feeding levels
energy input
primary producers
autotrophs
photosynthesis
energy flow and carbon flow
primary consumers
secondary consumers
2 more items...
herbivores
Ecology
study of organisms in relationship to all surroundings
individuals
population
community
ecosystem
The Structure of Populations
Geographic Distribution
Boundaries of the Geographic Range
#
#
limiting factor of plant
more light
more photosynthesis
Co2
after point is reached
Local Geographic Distribution
Types of Distribution
Random
unpredictable
Clumped
together
Uniform
evenly spaced
can create
zones
to prevent other species growth
zones also established by
chemicals
allelochemics
inhibition-allelopathy
Age Distribution: Demography
rate of population growth factors
generation time
length of time from birth to birth of first offspring
intrinsic rate of natural increase
biotic potential
r
number of offspring that actually make it long enough to reproduce
carrying capacity
K
r- and K- selection
#
r- selection
r selected species
K- selection
k selected species
face intense competition
Chapter 27: Biomes
The Current World Biomes
Dry Temperate Biomes
Grasslands
Shrublands & Woodlands
Desert
Alpine Tundra
Moist Temperate Biomes
Temperate Rain Forests
Drier Montane & Subalpine Forests
Temperate Deciduous Forests
Southeastern Evergreen Forests
Polar Biomes
Artic Tundra
Boreal Coniferous Forests
Tropical Biomes
Tropical Rainforests
Tropical Grasslands & Savanna
World Climate
Effect of Earths Tilt
Atmospheric Distribution of Heat
Continental Climate
Oceanic Distribution of Heat
Continental Drift
Present Position of the Worlds Continents
Past Positions of the Worlds Continents
Cambrian Period
Middle & Late Paleozoic Era
Mesozoic Era
Chapter 22: Seed Plants I: Seed Plants Without Flowers (“Gymnosperms”)
Division Coniferophyta: Conifers
diverse
trees
leaves = simple needles or scales
usually perrenial
venation
simple veins
transfusion tissue
#
transfusion parenchyma
cork cambium - bark
shoot
long
short
occur on axils of long
long needle leaves
tiny papery leaves
pines
pollen cones
simple cones
single short unbranched axis
bears microsporophylls
meiosis
endosporially develop
four cells
seed cones
compound cones
shoot w/ axillary buds
bears leaves called
cone
bracts
megasporophylls
ovuliferous scale
megaspore
1 more item...
suspensor
elongate
proembryo
embryo
grow act as nutritive tissue
Division Pteridospermophyta: Seed Ferns
earliest seed ferns
woody plant w/ fern foliage
bore seeds
Pteridosperms
thick cortex
radial plates
secretory ducts
all extinct
Division Cycadophyta: Cycads
stout trunks
pinnately compound leaves
most = short
no ovules
seed cones & pollen cones
dioecious
tropical w/ unusual distribution
no cold
Chapter 11 Energy Metabolism: Respiration
Energy Yield
ATP
NADH
FADH
Respiratory Quotient
=CO2 liberated/O2 consumed
respiratory metabolism
monoecious
variation
dioecious
staminate OR carpellate alone o
flower became adapted for insect
no petal mutations
large stigmatic surface area
growth pattern of plant pop
long styles & stamen filaments
photosynthesis
structure
water
ATP
ID
utilized genetics to change
biomes & pops and ecos involve each other
related
Classified pops
needed to happen
evolution changed genetics
evolution
roots and leaves associated together in functioning for helping plant absorb nutrients
