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Reproduction - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Birth control pills
      - Contraceptive shots, implants, and patches
      - vaginal ring
      - intrauterine device (IUD)
      - surgical methods
  - - - pulling out before ejaculation has a high failure rate
    - - prevent sperm from reaching uterine tubes such as condoms, spermicidal gels can rupture easily.
    - - inhibit ovulation and taken after unprotected intercourse. can cause hormonal imbalance & not 100% affective
  - - - either hormonal or non hormonal are flexible plastic structures inserted into the uterus &. helps prevent implantation
    - - surgical cut of uterine tubes & tying off ends
      - prevents sperm from reaching the uterus
    - - sperm is unable to leave testis, ductus deferens cut & segment is removed, ends are tied
- - - - Gonads
        
        Females
        
        Ovaries
        
        ovarian follicles
        
        primordial follicle
        
        most primitive type of ovarian follicle
        
        primary oocyte & single flattened layer of follicle cells
        
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        1.5 million at birth
        
        Primary follicle
        
        forms from maturing primordial follicle
        
        primary oocyte with layers of cuboidal follicular cells; granulosa cells
        
        secretes estrogen while maturing; stimulates changes in uterine lining
        
        secondary follicle
        
        forms from primary follicle
        
        primary oocyte has many layers of granulosa cells with fluid filled space
        
        Antrum has serous fluid which increases as ovulation nears
        
        oocyte is forced to one side of follicle
        
        Large Vesicular (mature) follicle
        
        forms from secondary follicle
        
        contains a secondary oocyte
        
        numerous layers of granulosa cells
        
        fluid filled antrum
        
        completed meiosis I
        
        taken in second meiotic metaphase
        
        formed one per month
        
        Corpus Luteum
        
        forms from remnants of follicle
        
        after mature follicle ruptures & oocyte is expelled
        
        secretes sex hormones, progesterone & estrogen
        
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        Males
        
        Testes
        
        Characteristics
        
        produce
        
        large amounts of sex hormones
        
        affects
        
        macturation
        
        development
        
        activity of reproductive organs
        
        sex cells called Gametes
        
        unite fertilization & initiate formation of new being
        
        occurs during copulation
      - Accessory
        
        Characteristics
        
        Females: carried towards site of fertilization
        
        Males: carried outside of body
  - - - formation of human sex cells
        
        cells are termed gametes
        
        Female gametes are secondary oocytes known as eggs
        
        male gametes are known as sperm
        
        begins with meiosis
        
        Meiosis
        
        starts with diploid parent
        
        produces haploid daughter cells
        
        begins with diploid parent cell in gonads
        
        four daughter cells genetically different from parent
        
        haploid daughter cells
        
        crossing over
        
        genetic material exchanged between homologous chromosomes
        
        Mitosis
        
        somatic cell division
        
        produce two daughter cells that are identical to parent
        
        diploid daughter cells
        
        no crossing
      - Hereditary information
        
        23 pairs of chromosomes
        
        Autosomes
        
        contain gene coding for cellular functions
        
        determines human characteristics
        
        homologous chromosomes
        
        22 pairs
        
        Sex chromosomes
        
        2 X chromosomes or 1 X & 1 Y
        
        Female (XX) Male (XY)
        
        has some gene coding for other functions
        
        chromosome pair inherited by one member of each parent
        
        Diploid Cell
        
        23 pairs of chromosomes
        
        2n chromosomes (n unpaired chromosome number)
        
        Haploid Cell
        
        23 chromosomes
        
        chromosome number n
        
        has gametes from either sex
        
        offspring does not receive 4n total chromosomes
      - Phases
        
        Interphase
        
        Before meiosis
        
        DNA on all replicated cells
        
        chromosomes replicated and now have two sister chromatids
        
        have identical copy of DNA
        
        Meiosis I
        
        when cell divides homologous pairs of chromosomes separate
        
        two cells each consist of 23 chromosomes only of duplicated sister chromatids
        
        phases
        
        prophase
        
        Homologous replicated chromosomes pair up and form a tetrad
        
        Crossing over of genetic material of maternal chromosome exchanged with same portion of material in chromatid of paternal chromosome
        
        nuclear envelope is broken down
        
        extension of spindle fibers from centrioles at opposite cell ends
        
        attach to centromere of each homologous replicated chromosome
        
        metaphase I
        
        Homologous pairs of tetrad on cell midline
        
        random with maternal or paternal chromosome on left side
        
        random alignment known as independent assortment
        
        Anaphase I
        
        Homologous pairs of chromosomes on opposite ends of cell
        
        each daughter cell receives half number of chromosomes
        
        two sister chromatids are with each chromosome
        
        Telophase I/ Cytokinesis
        
        nuclear envelopes reform
        
        formation of cleavage furrow
        
        Cytokinesis
        
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        daughter cells with 23 chromosomes with two sister chromatids each
        
        Meiosis II
        
        Meiosis II
        
        starts with two daughter cells
        
        each has 23 replicated chromosomes
        
        consist of two connected sister chromatids
        
        Chromatids separation
        
        become single in chromosomes in haploid cells
        
        Prophase II
        
        similar to Prophase I, included is nuclear envelope breakdown
        
        no cross over
        
        Metaphase II
        
        extension of spindle fibers from centrioles to centromeres
        
        chromosomes replicated & aligned to form line along cell midline
        
        Anaphase II
        
        sister chromatids are pulled apart
        
        single strand chromosomes separate to opposite poles of the cell
        
        Telophase II / Cytokinesis
        
        nuclear membrane reforms
        
        formation of cleavage furrow
        
        cytoplasm division
        
        Production of four haploid daughter cells
        
        22 autosomes
        
        1 sex chromosome (X or Y)
        
        mature into secondary oocytes in females
        
        mature into sperm in males
    - - Spermatogenesis
        
        process of sperm development
        
        occurs in seminiferous tubule
        
        starts during puberty with high levels of FSH & LH
        
        Female vs Male Gameotogenesis
        
        single viable secondary oocyte produced in females
        
        4 sperm produced in males
        
        female oocytes taken in meiosis before birth
        
        male sperm start spermatogenesis at puberty
        
        females only reproduce until menopause
        
        male sperm produced throughout males adult life
      - Spermatogonia
        
        primordial germ cells from sperm development
        
        diploid cells near seminiferous tubule
        
        surrounded by cytoplasm of sustentacular cell
        
        divide by mitosis into new spermatogonium & primary spermatocyte
        
        Primary Spermatocyte
        
        Diploid cells that undergo meiosis
        
        Secondary Spermatocyte
        
        2 cells produced from primary spermatocyte in meiosis I
        
        haploid cells, 23 chromosomes
        
        closer to seminiferous tubule lumen
        
        Spermatid
        
        formed when completion of secondary spermatocytes complete meiosis II
        
        haploid cell near seminiferous tubule lumen
        
        circular appearance
        
        Spermiogenesis
        
        Final stage
        
        spermatid becomes mature spermatozoa, also known as sperm
        
        excess cytoplasm sheds & nucleus becomes longer
        
        acrosome cap forms over nucleus
        
        digestive enzymes penetrates secondary oocyte
        
        Tail forms from organized microtubules in cell
        
        attached to midpiece region that has mitochondria & centriole
        
        Mitochondria gives energy to move tail
    - - Characteristics
        
        maturation of a primary oocyte to secondary oocyte
        
        occurs in stages throughout the females life
      - Before Birth
        
        contains primordial germ cells called oogonia
        
        diploid cells divide by mitosis
        
        cells start meiosis but are arrested in prophase I
        
        cells are no primary oocytes
        
        remain arrested in prophase I until after puberty
      - Childhood
        
        ovaries are not active
        
        no follicles developing
      - Puberty to menopause
        
        primordial follicles stimulated to mature by LH & FSH
        
        few primary follicles mature into secondary follicles
        
        only one matures to vesicular follicle
        
        Primary oocyte in follicle finishes meiosis I & forms 2 cells
        
        Polar Body
        
        nonfunctional
        
        minimal cytoplasm. & regresses
        
        cells that derived from primary oocyte receives bulk of cytoplasm
        
        becomes secondary oocyte in vesicular follicle
        
        reaches metaphase II before arrested again
        
        completes meiosis if fertilized
        
        if not fertilized it breaks down in. 24 hours
        
        (GnRH) Gonadotropin-releasing hormone is released from hypothalamus
        
        stimulates release of Follicle- stimulating hormone (FSH) & luteinizing hormone (LH)
        
        levels will vary due to cyclical pattern.
        
        ovarian cycle
        
        Follicular
        
        Days 1-13
        
        roughly 20 primordial follicles stimulated by LH & FSH
        
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        primary oocyte in follicle finishes meiosis I & forms 2 cells
        
        Polar body
        
        other cells derived from primary oocyte receives bulk of cytoplasm
        
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        ovulation
        
        release of secondary oocyte from mature follicle
        
        Day 14
        
        usually only one ovary ovulates each month
        
        induced with peak in LH secretion
        
        Antrum increases in size & swelling
        
        expands until ovarian surface thins & will eventually rupture expelling into secondary oocyte
        
        Luteal
        
        remaining follicle cells become corpus luteum
        
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        Days 15-28
        
        Corpus luteum regression
        
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      - After menopause
        
        cease cycling for 1 year
        
        Ages 45-55
        
        no more ovarian follicles remain, follicle maturation stops
        
        large amounts of progesterone & estrogen no longer secreted
        
        uterine lining no longer grows
      - Secondary oocyte is fertilized & implanted
        
        known as pre-embryo
        
        secretion of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
        
        mimics effects of LH & continues to stimulate corpus luteum
        
        corpus luteum continues to produce estrogen & progesterone
        
        maintains & builds uterine lining
        
        placenta produces its own progesterone & estrogen after 3 months
    - - Uterine Cycle
        
        cyclical changes in endometrial lining
        
        is influenced by estrogen & progesterone
        
        timeline is based on 28-day uterine cycle (21-35 day)
      - Menstrual Cycle
        
        Days 1-5
        
        sloughing off of the functional layer
        
        lasts through period of menstrual bleeding
      - Proliferate phase
        
        Days 6-14
        
        development of new functional layer of endometrium
        
        overlaps time of follicle growth & secretion of estrogen
      - Secretory Phase
        
        Days 15-28
        
        Increased secretion of progesterone from corpus luteum
        
        increased vascularization & uterine gland development
        
        if fertilization does not occur
        
        degeneration of corpus luteum & drop of progesterone
        
        with no progesterone, sloughs off functional layer
- - - - Breast Cancer
        
        risk factors include
        
        family history
        
        longer reproductive span
        
        obesity
        
        nulliparty
        
        late age at first pregnancy
        
        specific genes
        
        most related to increased estrogen exposure
        
        a mammogram is used to detect small malignancies in early stage
        
        needs to be done 1 to 2 years for women over 40
      - Cervical Cancer
        
        Important risk factor
        
        Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection
        
        malignancy of female reproductive system
        
        a pap smear can detect cervical cancer at an early stage
        
        if cancer cells are present a portion of the cervix is then removed
        
        if invasive the uterus will need to be removed known as a hysterectomy