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BUS103 Organisational Behaviour Study Units 1 to 6, Noise, Antecedent…

- - - - Factors in the perceiver - interpretation of what we see is influenced by personal characteristics (sometimes we hear what we want to hear)
        
        attitudes
        
        motives
        
        interests
        
        experience
        
        expectations
      - Factors in the target - relationship of a target to its background influences perception
        
        novelty
        
        motion
        
        sounds
        
        size
        
        background
        
        proximity
        
        similarity
      - Factors in the situation/context - influences our attention
        
        time
        
        work setting
        
        social setting
  - - - 🅾 Attitudes
        Evaluative statements/judgments
        (high overlap between different job attitudes)
        
        5. Employee Engagement
        Involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for organisation
        
        access to resources and opportunities to learn new skills, meaningfulness of work, rewarding interactions with co-workers
        
        4. Perceived Organisational Support (POS)
        Degree to which employees believe the organisation values their contribution and cares about them and well-being
        
        may be perceived as supportive when rewards are fair, voices are heard in decisions, supervisors supportive
        
        3. Organisational Commitment
        Identifying with organisation and goals, maintain membership in organisation
        
        committed employees less likely to engage in work withdrawal despite of dissatisfaction, working hard out of loyalty
        
        2. Job Involvement
        Identifying with job, actively participating in decisions, considering performance important to self-worth
        See also - psychological empowerment
        Employees' beliefs in degree to which they influence their work environment, competencies, meaningfulness of job and autonomy
        
        1. Job Satisfaction
        Collection of positive &/or negative feelings towards job
        Measurement
        1. Single global rating
        e.g. (1 to 5) how satisfied are you in your job
        2. Summation of job facets
        specific details; deals directly with the job dissatisfaction
        
        🅾 Responses of Job Dissatisfaction
        
        Voice & Loyalty - constructive behaviors that help us understand situations
        
        Exit & Neglect - concerned with this
        
        Voice
        
        actively and constructively attempts to improve conditions
        
        suggesting improvements, discuss problems (union activity)
        
        Loyalty
        
        passively waiting for conditions to improve
        
        speaking up to external criticism, trusting organisation to do the right thing
        
        Exit
        
        leaving the organisation
        
        looking for new position or resigning
        
        Neglect
        
        allowing conditions to worsen
        
        absenteeism, lateness, reduced effort and increased error rate
- - - - Equity theory
        
        comparing ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of relevant others
        
        1. Job inputs e.g. effort, experience, education, competence
        2. Outcomes e.g. salary levels, raises, recognition
        ► state of equity exists when ratios are equal (fairness) - no tension
        ► ratio are unequal (unfairness) - tension
        
        Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into equity/reactions to inequity:
        
        change inputs (slack off)
        
        change outcomes (increase output by producing quantity, without quality
        
        distort/change perceptions of self & others
        
        choose a different referent person
        
        leave the field (quit)
        
        Model of Organisational Justice
        
        overall perception of what is fair in the workplace
        
        1. Distributive Justice
        fairness of the outcome e.g. received pay raise that was deserved
        2. Procedural Justice
        fairness of process used to determine outcome e.g. process, rules, provide good explanation of why pay was raised
        3. Interactional Justice
        sensitivity to quality of interpersonal treatment
        - Informational Justice
        providing explanations for key decisions, informing important organizational matters
        - Interpersonal Justice
        treating with dignity and respect e.g. when telling employee news of pay raise
      - Expectancy theory (Victor Vroom)
        The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.
        
        Individual effort (1)→ Individual performance (2)→ Organisational rewards (3)→ Personal goals
        (1) Effort-performance relationship - Expectancy
        (2) Performance-reward relationship - Instrumentality
        (3) Rewards-personal goals relationship - Valence
        ► individual must feel that if they try, they can perform
        ► if they perform, they will be rewarded
        ► when they are rewarded, it will be something they care about
      - Goal-setting theory (Edwin Locke)
        
        goals tell employees what needs to be done and how much effort is needed
        
        specific goals increase perfections
        
        difficult goals result in higher performance
        
        feedback on progress leads to higher performance
        
        Three other factors influencing the goals-performance relationship:
        
        Goal commitment
        
        Task characteristics
        
        National culture
    - - Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
        
        Core job dimensions → Critical psychological states → Personal and work outcomes
      - Job Redesign
        Repetitive jobs provide little variety, autonomy or motivation
        
        2. Job Enrichment
        
        high level responsibilities to increase sense of purpose, direction, meaning and intrinsic motivation
        
        enriched job organizes tasks to allow work to do a complete activity
        
        increases depth
        
        gives employees greater freedom, independence, responsibility and feedback
        
        3. Job Enlargement
        
        increasing the number and variety of tasks
        
        makes job varied and reduce dullness
        
        1. Job Rotation
        
        cross-training
        
        period shifting from one task to another
        - strengths: reduces boredom, increases motivation, helps employees better understand their work contributions
        - weaknesses: creates disruptions, requires extra time for questions & training, reduced efficiencies
        
        4. Relational Job Design
        
        make jobs more prosocially motivating
        
        connect employees with the beneficiaries of their work
        
        employees' actions affect a real person and their jobs have tangible consequences - emotional connection, foster higher levels of commitment
      - Other ways of motivating employees
        1. Alternative work arrangements
        
        flextime
        
        job sharing
        
        telecommuting
        
        🅾 2. Employee Involvement and Participation
        A participative process that uses employees' input to increase their commitment to organisation's success
        (a) Participative Management
        
        joint decision making through surveys/informal consultations
        
        enhance motivation through trust and commitment
        
        reduces negative effects of job insecurity on satisfaction and turnover intentions
        
        (b) Representative Participation
        
        redistributes power within the organisation, putting labour's interests on a more equal footing with interests of management and stockholders by including a small group of employees as participants in decision making
        e.g. work counsils (group of nominated/elected employees), board representatives (employees who sit on a company's board directors and represent employees' interests)
        
        3. Benefits/Extrinsic and intrinsic rewards
- - - - (3) Status
        A socially defined position or rank given to groups/members
        Status Characteristics Theory
        differences in status characteristics create status hierarchies within groups
        Status is derived from 1/3 sources:
        ► the power a person wields over others
        ► a person's ability to contribute to a group's goals
        ► an individual's personal characteristics
      - (4) Size and Dynamics
        group size affects group's overall behavior
        
        large groups are good for gaining diverse input
        
        small groups are better with productivity with the input
        
        social loafing - tendency to expend less effort when working collectively than alone
        
        diffusion of responsibility
      - (2) Norms
        Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by group's members
        Conformity
        Adjusting one's behavior to align with norms of group
        e.g. Asch Studies
        Defying norms
        A. Positive norms
        
        CSR (to hold normative sway over employees
        
        PC (political correctness norms?)
        
        B. Negative norms
        
        CWB (counter productive work behavior)
        
        actions that intentionally violate established norms, result in negative consequences
        
        antisocial behavior/workplace incivility
      - (5) Cohesiveness
        the degree to which group members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group
      - (1) Roles
        A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position e.g. information giver/coordinator
        Role expectations
        How others believe a person should act in a given situation
        Role perception
        Individual's view of how he/she is supposed to act
        Role conflict
        A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations
        e.g. making group profit vs. distribute profits
      - 🅾 (6) Diversity
        
        increases conflict in early stages
        
        surface level diversity alerts people to more deep level diversity
        
        possible side effect: fault lines/perceived divisions e.g. sex, age, race
        
        studies are mixed, groups can perform better if they can get over the conflict
    - - 🅾 Potential problems of Group Decision Making
        1. Groupthink
        A phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action
        2. Group shift
        A shift can be toward either conservatism or greater risk, but is generally toward a more extreme version of the group's original position
  - - - 1. Problem-solving
        
        permanent teams meeting at a regular time to address quality standards
        
        rarely have authority to implement suggestions unilaterally
      - 2. Self-managed
        
        perform highly related or independent jobs/supervisory responsibilities e.g. planning, scheduling, assigning tasks, make operating decisions
        
        select members who evaluate each other's performances
      - 3. Cross-functional
        
        same hierarchical level but different work areas who come together to accomplish a task
        
        (1) power shifts will occur when different expertise is needed because the members are at roughly the same level in the organization, which creates leadership ambiguity. A climate of trust thus needs to be developed before shifts can happen without undue conflict.
        (2) early stages of development are often long because members need to learn to work with higher levels of diversity and complexity
        (3) it takes time to build trust and teamwork, especially among people with different experiences and perspectives.
      - 4. Virtual
        
        computer technology to unite physically dispersed members and achieve a common goal
        
        how to ensure effectiveness:
        (1) trust established among members
        (2) progress is monitored closely (doesn’t lose sight of goals and disappearing team members)
        (3) efforts and products of team publicized throughout the organization
      - 5. Multi team systems
        
        tasks become more complex → teams size increase → higher coordination demands → creates tipping point where member additions could cause harm
        
        collection of two or more interdependent teams that share a superordinate goal aka team of teams
    - - 2. Team composition
        
        Abilities of members
        
        Personality
        
        Allocating roles
        
        Diversity
        
        Cultural differences
        
        Size of teams
        
        Member preferences
      - 3. Process variables
        
        Common purpose
        
        Specific goals
        
        Team efficacy
        
        Team identity
        
        Team cohesion
        
        Mental models
        
        Conflict levels
        
        Social loafing
      - 1. Contextual influences
        
        Resources (adequate)
        
        Leadership & structure
        
        Climate of trust
        
        Performance evaluation and reward systems
- - - - Types of Conflict
        1. Task conflict - content and goals of the work
        2. Relationship conflict - focuses on interpersonal relationships
        3. Process conflict - how the work gets done
      - Loci of Conflict
        1. Dyadic conflict - between two people (e.g. co-workers, spouses)
        2. Intragroup conflict - within a group/team (e.g. families, tribes)
        3. Intergroup conflict - between groups/teams (e.g. ethnic groups)
      - Conflict Process
    - - Distributive vs Integrative Bargaining
        Goal: Get as much of the pie as possible 😡 Expand the pie so that both parties are satisfied
        Motivation: Win-lose 😡 Win-win
        Focus: Positions ("can't go beyond this point on this issue") 😡 Interests "can you explain why this issue is so important to you?")
        Interests: Opposed 😡 Congruent
        Information sharing: Low (sharing info will only allow other party to take advantage) 😡 High (sharing info will allow each party to find ways to satisfy interests)
        Duration of relationship: Short-term 😡 Long-term
      - How individual differences influence negotiations
        
        1. Personality traits
        
        predicting opponent's negotiating tactics based on their personality?
        
        2. Moods/emotions
        
        influences negotiation but depends the type of negotiation
        
        3. Culture
        
        people from different cultures negotiate differently
        
        negotiation more effective within cultures than between them
        when in cross-cultural negotiations:
        
        important to be high in openness
        
        emotional dynamics
        
        4. Gender differences
        
        some merit to popular stereotype that women are more cooperative, pleasant and relationship-oriented in negotiations than men
        
        gender differences can be lessened at both organisational and individual level
- - - - Increased group performance
      - Decreased group performance
- - - - Stage V
        Outcomes