🅾 Big Five Personality Model (EACEO)
1. Extraversion - relational approach toward the social world
experience and freely express positive emotions, sociable, gregarious and assertive

2. Agreeableness - the propensity to defer to others
good-natured, cooperative and trusting

3. Conscientiousness - measure personal consistency and reliability
responsible, dependable, persistent and organized

4. Emotional stability - person's ability to withstand stress
positive - calm, self-confident, secure under stress
negative - nervous, depressed, insecure under stress

5. Openness to experience - range of interests and fascination with novelty
curious, imaginative, artistic and sensitive

Major Personality Attributes
1. Self-monitoring

• personality trait that measures an individual's ability to adjust behaviour to external/situational factors
  
  

2. Core Self Evaluations (CSEs)

• Bottom line conclusions about their capabilities, competence and worth
  - positive and see them as being in control
  - negative and see them as powerless over environment
  
  

3. Proactive Personality

• identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action and perseveres until meaningful change occurs

Personality & Values and the Workplace
1. Person-Job fit (John Holland's Personality-Job fit theory)
- Six personality types: realistic, investigative, social, conventional, enterprising, artistic

• people in job congruent with personality should be more satisfied and have lower turnover
  
  

2. Person-Organisation fit

• organisation culture vs. employees' values/personalities
• mismatch will result in turnover, refer to Big Five
  e.g. personal who places great importance on imagination, independence and freedom is likely to be poorly matched with organization that seeks conformity

🅾 Hofstede's Five Value Dimensions
1. Power distance
magnitude to which people accede to the unfair distribution of power in organisations

2. Individualism vs collectivism
act in an isolated manner vs as 'members of groups'

3. Masculinity vs feminity
extent to which culture favours traditional masculine roles e.g. achievements
men and women are treated equally in a high femininity culture

4. Uncertainty avoidance
planned vs unplanned scenarios/circumstances

5. Long-term vs short-term orientation
long-term - preparation for the future via thrift, saving and persistence, ability to adapt to new environments/situations
short-term - focuses on 'the past and the present', emphasises respect for tradition and fulfilling social obligations

🅾 The Four Perceptual Shortcuts
1. Selective Perception
People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience and attitudes

2. Contrast Effects
Evaluation of a person's characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher/lower on the same characteristics

3. Halo Effect
general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic

4. Stereotyping (gender, race, weight)
judging someone based of one's perception of the group to which that person belongs.
relying on too much generalisations

Factors in the perceiver - interpretation of what we see is influenced by personal characteristics (sometimes we hear what we want to hear)

• attitudes
• motives
• interests
• experience
• expectations

Factors in the target - relationship of a target to its background influences perception

• novelty
• motion
• sounds
• size
• background
• proximity
• similarity

🅾 Making judgment about others (Perception errors)
1. Attribution Theory

• whether a person's behavior is internally/externally caused depending on:
  (1) distinctiveness - displaying different behaviors in different situations?
  (2) consistency - responding same way over time? the more consistent the behavior, the more we're inclined to attribute to internal causes
  (3) consensus - everyone who faces a similar situation responds in a same way
  
  

2. Fundamental Attribution Error

• underestimate influence of external factors and overestimate influence of internal factors when judging others
• blame person first, not the situation
  
  

3. Self-Serving Bias

• attribute own successes to internal factors, blame external factors for failures

🅾 What determines Personality? (usually asked with a situation)
1. Heredity

• "Heredity Approach" argues that genes (chromosomes) are the source of personality
• Factors determined at conception: physical stature, facial attractiveness, gender, temperament, muscle composition & reflexes, energy level and biological rhythms
  
  

2. Environment
e.g. culture, friends/family

5. Employee Engagement
Involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for organisation

• access to resources and opportunities to learn new skills, meaningfulness of work, rewarding interactions with co-workers

4. Perceived Organisational Support (POS)
Degree to which employees believe the organisation values their contribution and cares about them and well-being

• may be perceived as supportive when rewards are fair, voices are heard in decisions, supervisors supportive

3. Organisational Commitment
Identifying with organisation and goals, maintain membership in organisation

• committed employees less likely to engage in work withdrawal despite of dissatisfaction, working hard out of loyalty

2. Job Involvement
Identifying with job, actively participating in decisions, considering performance important to self-worth

See also - psychological empowerment
Employees' beliefs in degree to which they influence their work environment, competencies, meaningfulness of job and autonomy

Voice

• actively and constructively attempts to improve conditions
• suggesting improvements, discuss problems (union activity)

Loyalty

• passively waiting for conditions to improve
• speaking up to external criticism, trusting organisation to do the right thing

Neglect

• allowing conditions to worsen
• absenteeism, lateness, reduced effort and increased error rate

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory

1. Lower-Order Needs - satisfied externally (Physiological, Safety)
2. Higher-Order Needs - satisfied internally (Social, Esteem, Self-Actualization)
   
   

Internal vs external esteem
Internal - Prestige, feel a sense of achievement, self respect, freedom that we want
External - People to give us attention, status, recognition

🅾 McClelland's Theory of Needs
1. Need for Achievement (nAch)

• drive to excel, achieve in relation to a set of standards, strive to succeed
• high achievers like to work alone
  
  

2. Need for Affiliation (nAff)

• desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
• usually are social workers/counsellors
  
  

3. Need for Power (nPow)

• need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise
  
  

► Individuals have different levels of needs, and these levels drive their behaviour
► Achievers prefer jobs that offer - personal responsibility, feedback, moderate risks

Expectancy theory (Victor Vroom)
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.

Individual effort (1)→ Individual performance (2)→ Organisational rewards (3)→ Personal goals
(1) Effort-performance relationship - Expectancy
(2) Performance-reward relationship - Instrumentality
(3) Rewards-personal goals relationship - Valence

► individual must feel that if they try, they can perform
► if they perform, they will be rewarded
► when they are rewarded, it will be something they care about

Goal-setting theory (Edwin Locke)

• goals tell employees what needs to be done and how much effort is needed

  
  

• specific goals increase perfections

• difficult goals result in higher performance
• feedback on progress leads to higher performance
  
  

Three other factors influencing the goals-performance relationship:

1. Goal commitment
2. Task characteristics
3. National culture

Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into equity/reactions to inequity:

• change inputs (slack off)
• change outcomes (increase output by producing quantity, without quality
• distort/change perceptions of self & others
• choose a different referent person
• leave the field (quit)

Model of Organisational Justice

• overall perception of what is fair in the workplace
  
  

1. Distributive Justice
fairness of the outcome e.g. received pay raise that was deserved

2. Procedural Justice
fairness of process used to determine outcome e.g. process, rules, provide good explanation of why pay was raised

3. Interactional Justice
sensitivity to quality of interpersonal treatment

- Informational Justice
providing explanations for key decisions, informing important organizational matters
- Interpersonal Justice
treating with dignity and respect e.g. when telling employee news of pay raise

Core job dimensions → Critical psychological states → Personal and work outcomes

2. Job Enrichment

• high level responsibilities to increase sense of purpose, direction, meaning and intrinsic motivation
• enriched job organizes tasks to allow work to do a complete activity
• increases depth
• gives employees greater freedom, independence, responsibility and feedback

1. Job Rotation

• cross-training
• period shifting from one task to another
  - strengths: reduces boredom, increases motivation, helps employees better understand their work contributions
  - weaknesses: creates disruptions, requires extra time for questions & training, reduced efficiencies

4. Relational Job Design

• make jobs more prosocially motivating
• connect employees with the beneficiaries of their work
• employees' actions affect a real person and their jobs have tangible consequences - emotional connection, foster higher levels of commitment

Other ways of motivating employees
1. Alternative work arrangements

• flextime
• job sharing
• telecommuting
  

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🅾 2. Employee Involvement and Participation
A participative process that uses employees' input to increase their commitment to organisation's success
(a) Participative Management

• joint decision making through surveys/informal consultations
• enhance motivation through trust and commitment
• reduces negative effects of job insecurity on satisfaction and turnover intentions
  
  

(b) Representative Participation

• redistributes power within the organisation, putting labour's interests on a more equal footing with interests of management and stockholders by including a small group of employees as participants in decision making
  e.g. work counsils (group of nominated/elected employees), board representatives (employees who sit on a company's board directors and represent employees' interests)
  

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3. Benefits/Extrinsic and intrinsic rewards