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Course Mind Map, Seed Plants I: Seed Plants Without Flowers ("…

- - - - Ovules on flat sporphlls
  - - - Carpels are believed to be sporophylls #
- - - - Shrubs to large trees
  - - - Layer of tissue
    - - A hole in the integument that lets sperm swim to egg
    - - Holding area for pollen
- - - - bears microsporophylls
  - - - More complex than pollen cones
- - - - Not really death if the divide
  - - - About 25 million divisions per second
  - - - Differentiate and mature
- - - - Used for next DNA
    - - Several hours to months
      - Longest cell cycle phase
  - - - Duplicate molecules remain attached at centromere
    - - Genes attached in a linear structure
      - Double chromosome
        
        Two chromosomes stuck together
        
        By cohesion
    - - Gives DNA protection and structure
    - - Located near center of chromosome
  - - - Breaks down nuclear envelope
- - - - Nuclear genes are first copied
      - One set of genes separated from the other
      - Each are packed into their own nucleus
    - - Method of cell replication in multicellular organisms
      - Eukaryotic unicellular organisms
        
        Used when not going through sexual reproduction
    - - Exact copies of orignal
        
        Occasional error
  - - - Each half has elements from original
        
        Not necessary for exactly half of each
  - - - Two come together and form zygote
        
        Zygote grows into adult
    - - Contains
        
        Prophase I
        
        Metaphase I
        
        Anaphase I
        
        Telophase I
    - - Splits like mitosis
        
        Each daughter cells is haploid
- - - - Long extended double helix
  - - - Chromosomes become shorter and thicker
        
        Happens multiple times until ~ 2-5micrometers long
        
        Can be moved around cell more easily
    - - Usually disappears
  - - - Pulls daughter cells away from twins
- - - - Algae
      - Fungi
      - Nutritive tissues of seeds
    - - New walls form around each nucleus
- - - - Membrane pulls forward and punches in two
- - - - Two strands separate
        
        Form a "bubble"
  - - - Template makes complementary DNA strand
  - - - Creates a "fork like" appearance
- - - - The parents
    - - First generation
    - - Offspring of the F1 generation
    - - Two of the same allele
    - - Two different alleles
  - - - Gene that covers up other genes
    - - Genes that get covered up by others usually
  - - - When a plants pollen fertilizes itself
- - - - Size
      - Color
      - Shape
      - Metabolism #
- - - - Something that causes mutations
    - - Few thousand base pairs long
      - Contain coding genes for enzymes
    - - Contain genes that code for proteins
  - - - Nature
      - Position
      - Extent
    - - No effect
- - - - Two genes on separate chromosomes
        
        One gene moves independently of the other
  - - - Genes don't undergo independent assortment
        
        Genes are said to be linked
- - - - Alleles of both parents are transmitted equally to the offspring
    - - Maternal Inheritance
      - zygote obtains all genomes from maternal parent
  - - - Plants with more than two sets of chromosomes
    - - Duplicates of a gene
    - - Up to 600 paralogs
- - - - Bryophyta
      - Hepatophyta
      - Anthocerotophyta
- - - - Perennial and thrive in many environments
    - - Gametophores
        
        Leafy stems
    - - Hydroids
        
        Cells in the innermost cortex
      - Leptoids
        
        Cells that resemble sieve cells
      - Rhizoids
        
        At base of stem
        
        Small, multicellular structures that penetrate the surface of the substrate
        
        Trichome like
  - - - Zygote undergoes transverse division
      - Basal cell develops into a bulbous tissue
    - - Upper cell grows by division and expansion
        
        into a simple apical sporangium
    - - Narrow stalk between foot and sporangium
    - - Cap-like lid formed by apex of sporangium
    - - Complex teeth caused by cell breakage
    - - Layer of cells derived from neck of archegonium
- - - - Leafy Liverworts
      - Thallose Liverworts
        
        Thallus
        
        Body
  - - - Cells that dont undergo meiosis
      - Single, elongated cells with spring shaped walls
- - - - HIdden by grasses and other herbs
- - - - Relationship between area and species richness
- - - - Asexual
    - - Sexual
- - - - Parts become self sufficient
        
        Each part starts growing its own roots
        
        Becomes different but identical plant
- - - - Haploid sex cells
        
        Sperm
        
        Egg
    - - Fertilized egg
    - - Fertilization
      - When gametes fuse together
      - Diploid
  - - - Pollen tube
        
        Pollen lands on stigma, germinates and produces pollen tube
    - - Embro sac
        
        Multinucleate megagametophyte
      - Central cell
      - two polar nuclei
      - 3 small antipodal cells
      - Egg apparatus
        
        two synergids
  - - - fusion of the protoplasts of the gametes
    - - fusion of nuclei
    - - Both sperm undergo fusions
        
        One with the egg
        
        One with the polar nucleus
  - - - Pushes the embryo deep into endosperm
    - - Embryonic Stem
    - - Embryonic root
    - - Root/Shoot Junction
    - - Mature seed in which an endosperm is really abundant
    - - Endosperm is sparse or absent at maturity
  - - - Outermost layer of fruit
        
        Skin or peel
    - - Middle layer of the fruit
        
        Flesh
    - - The innermost layer of the fruit
    - - Entire fruit wall
  - - - flower stalk
    - - Where other flower parts are attached
    - - Have all 4 types of appendages
        
        Sepals
        
        Lowest and outermost of appendages
        
        Modified leaves
        
        Surround and enclose other maturing flower parts
        
        Petals
        
        Above the sepals on the receptacles
        
        Stamen
        
        Above the petals
        
        Known collectively as androecium
        
        Two parts
        
        Filament
        
        Anther
        
        Capels
        
        Constitute the gynoecium
        
        Highest on the receptacle
        
        Three main parts
        
        Stigma
        
        Style
        
        Ovary
    - - Lacking one or two types of appendages
- - - - Pollination of carpel from the plants own pollen
  - - - Chemical reactions between pollen and carpels
        
        Prevent pollen growth
  - - - Stamen and carpels
      - Produce critically important spores
    - - Incomplete flowers
      - Lack one or both essential organs
    - - Has both essential organs
    - - Sepals and petals
  - - - Symmetrical halves
    - - Bilaterally symmetrical
  - - - Below
      - result if receptacle tissue grows up around ovary
    - - Above
      - No fusion of ovary occurs
      - Hypogynous Parts
    - - Perigynous
      - Partially burried
- - - - Fruits containing only ovarian tissue
    - - False Fruits
      - Used if any nonovarian tissue is present
    - - Single ovary or fused ovaries
    - - Separate carpels of one gyneocium fuse during development #
      - Raspberries
    - - Individual fruits fuse during development
      - Figs
  - - - Fruits eaten during natural seed dispersing
    - - Fruit that isnt typically eaten
    - - Dry fruit breaks open and releases seeds
    - - Do not break open
      - Fleshy fruits
- - - - One fertilizes the egg
      - Another fertilizes a polar nucleus
- - - - Palm trees
      - Palmae
      - Leaves occur near short apex
    - - Cattails
      - Wind pollinated
      - Sepals are of little importance
        
        Reduced to bristle-like structures
  - - - Result in loss of stomata
  - - - Carpels fused side by side
    - - Carpels dont fuse all the way to the style
        
        Open area secretes nectar
- - - - Betalains
        
        water soluble pigments
      - Perisperm
        
        Nucleus cells proliferate and form nutritive tissue
    - - Small order of highly modified plants
  - - - Eurosids I
  - - - Euasterids I
    - - Euasterids II
- - - - Fermentation #
- - - - 2 ATP molecules used to start process
- - - - Walls remain thin
    - - Mass of parenchyma cells
    - - Some cells die at maturity
    - - Secrete
        
        Nectar
        
        Fragrances
        
        Mucilage
        
        Resins
        
        Oils
  - - - Thin in some areas, thickened in other areas
    - - Shoot tips
      - Young petioles
  - - - Both elastic
      - Can be deformed but return to starting size
    - - Conducting
      - Mechanical
- - - - corky, waxy, small
- - - - Outermost surface of herbaceous stem
      - Single layer of living parenchyma
      - Encrusted with cutin
        
        Builds up to make cuticle
    - - interior to the epidermis
      - Composed of photosynthetic parenchyma and collenchyma #
    - - Two types
        
        Xylem #
        
        Phloem #
    - - Two types
        
        Tracheids
        
        Vessel elements
      - Vascular tissue
    - - two types
        
        Sieve tube members
        
        Sieve tube cells
      - Vascular tissue
    - - Where xylems and phloems are together
- - - - Cells divide by mitosis
- - - - Caused by
        
        Mutations to the gene pool
        
        Natural Selection
    - - Requires thousands of generations
        
        Millions of years
- - - - Mutations Occur Continuously
      - Existing alleles decrease in frequency overtime
    - - Events that an organism can not adapt to
        
        Organisms die off
        
        Decreasing frequency of certain alleles
      - Can be small or large
    - - Allele frequency in gene pool is purposefully changed
        
        Selective breeding
      - Used to produce plants the flower longer than others
    - - Most significant factor in gene pool changes
      - "Survival of the fittest"
      - The most adapted individuals live, others die
      - Differential survival among organisms
      - Does not cause mutations
        
        Acts only on preexisting alleles
      - link to www.google.com
    - - Purpose
      - Intention
      - Planning
      - Voluntary Decision Making
- - - - A physical, non living feature that prevents two populations from exchanging genes
      - The original species is divided into separate populations
        
        The populations can't interbreed
        
        If speciation results it is allopathic
    - - Any biological phenomenon that prevents successful gene flow
      - Sympatric Speciation
        
        When two groups grow together but are reproductively isolated
      - Postzygotic Internal Isolation Barriers
        
        Divides species
      - Prezyogotic Isolation Mechanisms
        
        biological reproductive barriers that keep pollen from spreading
      - Hybrid Sterility
        
        Two different plants breed to make viable seed
        
        Viable seed produces plant
        
        Plant produces sterile seeds
      - Hybrid Inviability
        
        One parent alleles may code for proteins that another may not
        
        Seed becomes inviable and dies
    - - Species rapidly diverges into new species
  - - - They end up favoring eachother
- - - - Most of first atmosphere was lost in space
        
        Due to hydrogen being a light gas
        
        Second atmosphere was formed
        
        Replaced first atmosphere
        
        Produced by release of gases
        
        Reducing atmosphere
        
        Due to lack of molecular oxygen
    - - UV Rays
      - Heat
      - Electricity
      - Gamma Radiation
    - - Basically no limits
  - - - Amino Acids
      - Sugars
      - Lipids
      - Nitrogen Bases
  - - - Requires high concentration of polymers
  - - - Atmosphere present was derived from early second atmosphere
        
        By addition of oxygen from photosynthesis
  - - - Uses only known chemical and physical properties
- - - - Small sporophyte came about
  - - - More vascularized
      - More complex
- - - - Both branches are of equal size and vigor
    - - Sporangia
  - - - Outgrowths
  - - - Center of vascular plant that is all xylem, no pith
    - - Protoxylem in center and metaxylem on outer edges
    - - Metaxylem in center and protoxylem on edges
    - - Pith is present in center
- - - - Enations in the division Lycophyta
  - - - Sporangia clustered together in compact groups in lycophytes
  - - - Small flap of tissue used to distinguish lycopodiums from selaginellas
- - - - Branching like a tree, not a bush
    - - Single main trunk rather than a series of dichotomies
  - - - Monilophytes # #
        
        Mostly plants we know as ferns
        
        Others are fern allies
      - Lignophytes
        
        Woody plants
  - - - Extant species #
    - - Where sporangia occur on the plant
    - - Main trunk, lateral branches, true leaves and true roots
  - - - Ferns that are familiar to us
    - - Diverges from siphonostele at each node
    - - Section of just parenchyma
    - - Clusters of sporangia where meiosis occurs
    - - Only two groups of water ferns are heterosporous
  - - - Leaves that evolved from branch systems
      - Present in all seed plants, ferns and equisetophytes
    - - Summarizes megaphyll evolution
      - Theory that leaves evolved from modification of terminal branches
    - - Sporangium bearing leaf-like structure
    - - Monophyletic clade
- - - - "Crypto"
- - - - Photosynthesis
    - - Cyanobacteria
      - Green Plants
      - Few bacteria
  - - - Respire organic molecules
        
        Obtain energy
    - - All animals
      - All completely parasitic plants
      - All fungi
      - Non-photosynthetic prokaryotes
- - - - Guanosine Triphosphate
        
        Most common ATP relative
      - ATP
        
        Most essential molecule
      - Other ATP relatives
  - - - Atom does not carry full electrons
    - - Electrons are added to an atom
    - - The ability to force electrons into compounds
  - - - Contain heme (cofactor)
        
        Heme holds iron atom
      - Intrinsic membrane proteins
      - Integral part of chloroplasts thylakoid membrane
      - If removed, the membrane gets destroyed
      - Only carry electrons between extremely close sites
    - - Transport electrons over short distances #
      - Pick up two electrons and bind two protons
      - Hydrophobic
        
        Dissolves easily into lipids of chloroplast
    - - Carries electrons on a metal atom
        
        Copper atom
      - Moves short distances along the surface
- - - - Colors or wavelengths it contains
    - - Light intensity or brightness
    - - Number of hours per day sunlight is available
  - - - Above
    - - Below
- - - - Pigment
        
        Distinctive color of substance that absorbs some wavelengths
      - Chlorophyll a
        
        Absorbs some red and blue light
      - Fluorescence
        
        Release of light by pigment
    - - Electromagnetic radiation spectrum
        
        Gamma Rays
        
        X-rays
        
        Ultraviolet light
        
        Infrared Light
        
        Microwaves
        
        Radiation
        
        Visible Light
        
        What humans can see
        
        link to www.google.com
      - Radiation
        
        Quanta
        
        Also called Quantum
        
        Set of particles
        
        Photon
        
        Set of waves
    - - P700
        
        Chlorophylls at the center
      - link to www.google.com #
    - - Chemiosmotic Phosphorylation
      - Happens in thylakoids
      - Grana
        
        Stack of thylakoids
      - Thylakoid Lumen
        
        Inner part of thylakoid
        
        Critical part
        
        Enzymes and electron carriers embedded
  - - - Calvin/Benson Cycle
        
        C3 Cycle
        
        In Stroma
- - - - Shape reduces surface to volume ratio
      - Favors water conservation
    - - Allows light to penetrate deeper than foliage leaves
        
        Photosynthesis occurs deeply
    - - Reduces internal evaporative surface area
  - - - Plant would lose energy making leaves if not
  - - - Contain cells that sense contact
  - - - Active
        
        Move during capture
      - Passive
        
        Incapable of movement
- - - - Epidermal cells
        
        Coating of cutin on outer walls
        
        Retain water
        
        Makes leaf slippery
        
        Prevents spores from sticking
        
        Makes fungal digestion harder
      - Guard cells
        
        Guard stomatal openings
      - Trichomes
        
        Provide shade on leaf
        
        Make walking or chewing difficult for animals
        
        Secrete powerful stinging compounds
      - Stomata
        
        Openings in the leaf
        
        Allow water out
        
        Most are on lower epidermis
        
        Few fungi can penetrate the leaf
  - - - Open, loose aerenchyma
      - Permits carbon dioxide diffusion
    - - Normally one layer thick
      - Sometimes three or four layers
        
        Under penetrating sunlight
      - Sometimes on upper and lower portion
  - - - Large midrib (midvein)
        
        Lateral veins emerge
        
        Branch into minor veins
      - Minor veins
        
        Release water from xylem
        
        Load sugar into phloem
  - - - Somewhat compact
    - - Stipules
        
        Various functions
- - - - Only maturation
  - - - Protoxylem and protophloem are constantly stretched
- - - - Support
        
        Tendrils
      - Protection
        
        Bud scales
        
        Spines
      - Storage
        
        Leaves of fleshy bulbs
      - Nitrogen procurement
        
        Trapping and digesting insects
      - Photosynthesis
- - - - Critically important to all organisms
      - Outside components
      - Tolerance Range
        
        What each species can survive in
    - - Pioneers
        
        First plants to invade a new soil
      - A Horizon
        
        Top layer of soil
        
        Consists of litter and debris
      - B Horizon
        
        Second layer of soil
        
        Zone where things from A horizon collect
      - C Horizon
        
        Deepest layer of soil
        
        Composed mostly of rock and fragments
    - - Organisms have to adapt
    - - Things like fires, landslides, snow avalanches, and floods
      - Things that are not normal in an environment
      - Harms many populations/communities
  - - - Modifies its habitat and is part of it
    - - Mutualism
        
        Reactions between multiple species that benefit each one
      - Competition
        
        Reactions been multiple species that do not benefit each one
      - Competitive exclusion
        
        Result of competition in one theory
      - Niche
        
        Particular set of conditions that no species are adapted to #
    - - Commensal Relationships
        
        Relationship where one species benefits, the other is unaffected
      - Predation
        
        One species benefits and the other is harmed
      - Pathogenic
        
        Bacteria or fungi that harm plants
- - - - One factor determines health of plant
      - Any factor can act as limiting factor
    - - Random Distribution
        
        There is no obvious, identifiable pattern to position of individuals
      - Clumped Distributions
        
        Spacing between plants
      - Uniform Distributions
        
        Types that occur in orchards
  - - - Length of time between birth and reproduction of individual
    - - Intrinsic Rate of Natural Increase
      - Number of offspring produced by an individual
      - Carrying Capacity
        
        Number of individuals of a species an ecosystem can hold
  - - - r- selected species
        
        Typically annuals or small shrubby perennials
    - - K- Selected Species
        
        Face intense competition from plant species
        
        Douglas-firs, bristle-cone pines
- - - - Autotrophs