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Chapter 51,52, & 53 - Coggle Diagram
Chapter 51,52, & 53
Chapter 51: Animal Behavior
Learning creates certain links b/t experience & behavior
Innate Behavior
Definition: fixed behavior
How an animal's experience during growth & development influence response to stimuli
Tinbergen's second question
Cross-fostering study
: the young of one species are placed in care of adult from another species in same or similar enviorment
Plays role in social/environment influence behavior
Twin study
In humans; researchers compare behavior of identical twins raised apart and those raised in same household
Used to help understand anxiety disorders, schizophrenia & alcoholism
Learning can influence animal's behavior
Definition: change in behavior result from specific experience
Nature and Nurture shapes behavior and learning
Imprinting
: Creation of long lasting behavioral response to certain person or object
Only happens during
Sensitive period
Ex: Gull's S.P when parent bond with young last for 1-2 days. Young imprints on parent during this time and learn basic behavior; parents learn to recognize its young
If bonding doesn't bond, it won't care thus abandoning young and young will die/ Dec in reproductive success of the parent
Types of Learning
Spatial Learning
: Est of a memory that reflects environment's spatial structure
Environment spatial variation includes location of nest sites, hazards, food & prospective mates
Can inc organism's fitness
Ex: Female dagger wasp covering her nest from intruders but remembering where her nest is when she comes back
Tinbergen hypothesizes wasps locates her nest by position relative to visible landmarks
Some animals it involves creation of a
Cognitive map
Definition: a mental representation of one's physical environment.
Associative Learning
learning involves making connections b/t experience
Definition: Connecting one environmental feature with another
Classical conditioning
When a random stimulus becomes associated with a certain outcome
Pavlov's dog experiment with food
Operant conditioning
AKA "Trial-&-Error learning
animal associating it's behavior with either a reward or punishment; it will either repeat or avoid behavior
Cognition & Problem Solving
Most complex form of learning involve
Cognition
Involves awareness, reasoning, recollection, and judgement
Ex: Y-shaped mazes provided evidence for abstract thinking in honeybees
Information-processing ability of a nervous system can be revealed in
Problem solving
definition: ability to devise a method to proceed from one state to another during times of real or apparent obstacles
Highly developed in mammals
Social Learning
Definition: Solving problems by observing the behavior of other individuals
Forms roots of
Culture
Definition: System of info transfer thru social learning or teaching that influence behavior of individuals in population
Changes in behavior that result from natural selection occur on much longer scale than learning
Selection for individual survival & reproductive success can explain diverse behavior
How behavior enhance survival/reproduction in pop. ?
Tinbergen's third question
Focus shifts from "how" to "why"
Considering activity of food gathering "
Foraging
"
Proposed that foraging behavior is compromise b/t benefits of nutrition & cost of obtaining food
Cost: energy or risk of being eaten while looking for food
Most significant risk: predation
2 more items...
Optimal Foraging Model
natural selection should favor foraging behavior that min cost and max benefits
Ex: Fruit fly larvae
Mating systems & sexual dimorphism
promiscuous mating: no strong pair bonds
monogamous: when mates form a relationship of some duration
polygamous: single male and female
polygny: one male and many females
polyandry: one female and many males
the sex that attracts multiple partners are the most sexiest and larger than opposite sex
Dimorphism
: when male and female differ in looks
results from sexual selection
Sexual Selection & Mate Choice
S.S can take form of intersexual or intrasexual selection
Intersexual selection: member of 1 sex choose mates on basis of characteristics of other sex
Ex: courtship songs
Female choice
mate choice can be influenced by imprinting
Intrasexual selection: competition b/t members of 1 sex for mates
Ex: face-off b/t male stalk-eyed flies competing for female attention
Mate-choice copying
behavior which individual copy mate choice of others
Ex: female guppy liking the male guppy only because another female guppy finds him attractive
Male competition for mates
competition can involve "Agonistic Interaction"
Definition: contest that determines which one gets the food or female
Can reduce variation among males
Applying Game Theory
By John Nash
Game Theory
: study of how players determine strategies in different situations in the face of competing strategies acted out by other players
Ex: playing chest
Discrete sensory inputs can stimulate both simple & complex behavior
What approach do biologists use to determine how behaviors arise and what functions they serve?
Proximate causation
: How behavior is modified or occurs?
Created by Tinbergen
Fixed action pattern
: sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to a simple stimulus
Triggered by external cue called sign stimulus
Ex: Male stickleback acting aggressively towards the red truck when it passes within its view
It's unchangeable and carried to completion
Migration
: Regular long-distance change in location
How do animals know when and were to migrate to if they were never instructed to do so?
Some track their position based on the sun
Circadian clock
: internal mech that maintains a 24hr activity rhythm or cycle
even maintained during hibernation
other cycles like migration and reproduction cycle has longer cycle or period
Behavioral rhythms
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Pigeons sense their position on earth due to its magnetic field
can navigate w/o solar or celestial cues
Ultimate causation
: Why behavior occurs in natural selection
Related to
Behavioral ecology
Definition: study of ecological & evolutionary basis for animal behavior
Behavior
Definition: action carried out by muscles under control of the nervous system
Ex: Sing, releasing scent to protect territory, or waving a claw
Signal
: Stimulus sent from one organism to another (Comuncation)
4 common nodes for communcation
Auditory
Ex: Male vibrates on wing making a courtship song for female
Tactile
Ex: Approach female and touches her foreleg
Chemical
Ex:detects chemicals released by female
Pheromones
: Communication through chemically enduced odor or taste
Ex: fruit flies courtshhip
Not limited to short distance signaling
Ex: Wounded catfish emits substance from skin into water, inducing a fright response to other fish
Visual
Ex: Sees female
Stimulus-response chain
Response to each stimulus is itself the stimulus for the next behavior
Ex: European Honeybee
The Waggle Dance
Performed when food is distant
Genetic analyses & the concept of inclusive fitness provide a basis for studying evolution of behavior
Genetic control of behavior
diff in behavior doesn't come from gene inactivation but from variation in activity or amount of gene product
Ex: the Voles
Antidiuretic hormone or Vasopressin
: peptide neurotransmitter important for partnering/parental behavior of male voles
gene expressed in brain of prairie vole more than meadow voles
receptors regulate postmating behavior (pair bonding)
Altruism
behavior that reduce individual's fitness but inc fitness of others in population
AKA "Selflessness"
Ex: squirrel alerting other squirrels of danger but alert can draw attention to him to be eaten
How does it arise in evolution?
The parent sacrificing itself to produce & aid kids
Max their genetic representation in population
Doesn't enhance survival or reproductive success
Inclusive Fitness
Proposed by William Hamilton
the ability of an individual to pass its genes to next generation, with also its shared genes passed on by the organism's close relatives.
Can inc genetic representation in next generation by helping close relatives other than its offsprings
Hamilton's Rule & Kin Selection
provided way to measure or quantify effect of altruism on fitness
3 key variables
3 more items...
Reciprocal Altruism
organism acts in a manner that temporarily reduces its fitness while increasing another organism's fitness, with the expectation that the other organism will act in a similar manner at a later time.
Referred to as "Cheating"
Game Theory suggests "tit-for-tat"
Play in humans
types of play
locomotor play
ex: acrobatics of an antelope
Does little to inform us about function play
Play serves as prep for unexpected events & for circumstances that cannot be controlled
social play
interaction & antics of lion clubs
object play
ex: chimps playing with leaves
Sociobiology
Human behavior & culture related to evolutionary theory
Main idea of sociobiology is certain behavioral characteristics exits b/c they're expressions of genes that been chosen by natural selection
Chapter 52: Intro to ecology & biosphere
Aquatic biomes are diverse & dynamic systems that cover most of earth
Aquatic biomes
characterized by their physical & chemical environment
Ocean makes up largest marine biome (Covers 75% of Earth's surface)
B/c ocean is so big, it greatly impacts biosphere
Ocean's water evaporation causes most of the planet's rainfall
Marine algae/ photosynthetic bacteria supply much of earth's O2 supply & consume most CO2
Zonation in aquatic biomes
physically & chemically stratified vertically & horizontally
zones
Pelagic zone
Photic & Aphotic makes up this layer
Abyssal zone
Part of the ocean 2000-6000 m below the surface
Aphotic zone
Lower layer where little light goes
Benthic zone
Bottom of all these aquatic zones
Occupied by organisms called benthos
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Photic zone
upper layer where there's enough light for photosynthesis
Temperature
Thermocline
: narrow layer of abrupt temp change in ocean or lake
Turnover
:process of a lake's water turning over from top (epilimnion) to bottom (hypolimnion)
Distribution of terrestrial biomes is controlled by climate & disturbance
Biomes
: Major life zones characterized by vegetation type in terrestrial biomes
What determines where biomes are located?
General features of land biomes
Mainly named for major physical or climate features and predominant vegetation
Each characterized by microorganisms, fungi and animals adapted to certain environment
Ecotone: areas of intergradation of land biomes/ may be wide or narrow
Layering of vegetation
it provides many diff habitats for animals
Disturbance & land biomes
Disturbance
: an event like a storm, fire or human activity that changes a community, removing organisms from it & changing resource availability
climate and terrestrial biomes
climate is a major factor in determining location of terrestrial biomes b/c it has strong influence on distribution of plant species
Climograph
: a plot of yearly mean temp & precipitation in certain region
Interactions b/t organisms & environment limit the distribution of species
Species distributions are consequence of both ecological factors & evolutionary history
Ex: continental drift
Dispersal
one factor that contributes to global distribution of organisms
Definition: movement to individuals or gametes away from their area of origin or from centers of high pop density
Natural range expansions & adaptive radiation
importance of dispersal is most known when organisms reach areas where they didn't exist before (Range Expansion)
Long distance dispersal can lead to adaptive radiation ( quick evolution of an ancestral species into new species that filled many ecological niches)
species transplants
ecologists observe results of intentional or accidental transplants of the species to areas where it was recently absent
Species must survive and reproduce in new area for transplant to be successful
conclude potential range is larger than actual range
It can disrupt communities & ecosystems to which they have been introduced
Ecologist rarely move species to new areas
Factors
Biotic
other species
ability for other species to survive & reproduce is reduced by its interactions with other species (predators or herbivores)
Biotic limitations are common in nature
Presence or absence of pollinators, food resources, parasites, pathogens, & competing organisms can act as biotic limitations
Abiotic
Includes temp, water, oxygen, salinity, sunlight, or soil
If physical conditions at site doesn't allow a species to survive/reproduce then species won't be found there
Earth's climate varies by latitude & seasons & is changing fast
Climate
: weather conditions prevailing in an area in general or over a long period.
4 factors of weather
Precipitation
Sunlight
Temperature
Wind
Global climate patterns
Determined by input of solar energy & earth's movement in space
sun warms atmosphere, land & water causing temp variations, movements of air & water, & evaporation of water
Regional & Local Effects on climate
climate changes seasonally and can be change by factors like mountains and large bodies of water
Earth's tilted axis of rotation and yearly passage around sun causes seasonal cycles in day lengths, solar radiation, and temp
Angle of sun rays affects local environment
Bodies of water
Ocean currents influence climate along coasts by heating/cooling land
When land is warmer than water, air over land rises and cool breeze from water goes across land
Temp drop quicker on land than water at night
When water is warmer than land, air rises drawing cooler air from land back over water and replacing land with warmer air
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Mountains
When warm moist air approaches mountain, air rises & cools thus releasing moisture on windward side of mountain
Leeward side has cooler dry air descending, absorbing moisture and making rain shadows
Can determine where many deserts are found
Also affects amount of sunlight reaching area and the local temp & rainfall
Microclimate
very fine localized patterns in climate conditions
Ex: The environment under a rock with worms and slugs
Abiotic: nonliving factors
Biotic: living factors
Ecology
: Study of interactions b/t organisms and enviroment
Types of ecology hierarchy
Community ecology
Examines how interactions b/t species affect community structure & organization
Ecosystem ecology
Emphasizes energy flow & chemical cycling b/t organisms & environment
Population ecology
Analyzes factors that affect pop size & how & why it changes thru time
Landscape ecology
Focuses on factors controlling exchanges of energy, material, & organisms across multiple ecosystems
Organismal ecology
study of individual organisms' behavior, physiology, morphology, etc. in response to environmental challenges.
Global ecology
Examines how regional change of energy & material influences functioning & distribution of organisms across biosphere
Global Climate Change
directional change to the global climate that lasts 30 years or more
Burning fossil fuel, deforestation and other greenhouse gases increases the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere
Climate change is causing dec in populations of many species or even to disappear
Chapter 53: Population Ecology
Density-dependent factors regulate population growth
Understanding why population stops growing when it reaches certain size
Ecologists study how rate of birth, death, immigration and emigration change as population density rises
Metapopulation
A group of spatially seperated pops of one species that interact thru immigration and emigration
Density independent
Birth rate or death rate doesn't change with pop density
Factors
Precipitation
Tempature
If immigration & emigration offset each other then pop grows where birth rate is greater than death rate vise versa
Density dependent
Death rate inc with pop density or birth rate dec with rising density
Feedback regulation
Negative feedback
W/o negative feedback b/t pop density & birth/death rate then pop would never stop growing
At large pop, it provided by density dependent regulation
It explains why a pop stops growing but not why pop fluctuate dramatically while others remain stable
Population dynamics
When pop changes in size from year to year or place to place
Ex: change in fish pop affect pop of seabirds that eat fish
Life history traits are products of natural selection
Traits that affect organism's schedule or reproduction & survival make up its
Life history
Life history traits of organism are evolutionary outcome reflected in its development, physiology, & behavior
Ways to categorize variation in life history traits is related to logistic growth
K-Selection: Selection for traits that are advantageous at high densities
R-Selections: Selection for traits that max reproductive success in crowded environments
Both represent 2 extremes in range of actual life histories
Diversity of Life Histories
3 components of of organism's life
How often does organisms reproduce
Semelparity: "one shot" pattern of big bang reproduction
Ex: Coho Salmon
Also occurs in some plants like century plants
Iteroparity: repeated reproduction
Ex: humans
How many kids they reproduce
There is a trade-off on how many one can reproduce
When reproduction begins
Biotic & abiotic factors affect population, density, dispersion, & demographics
Density
The # of individuals per unit area or volume
Ex: # of oak trees per sq kilometer
Can be determined by counting all individuals within the boundaries of the population
Mark-recapture method
Used to estimate size of wildlife population
Immigration
Influx of new individuals from other areas
Emigration
One of the factors that removes individuals from a pop, including death
Definition: movement of individuals out of a population & into other locations
Also influenced by birth and death rate
Dispersion
Pattern of spacing among individuals within boundaries of the pop
most common pattern is clumped; individuals are aggregated in patches
Ex:Plants and fungi
Uniform; is evenly spaced out, result from direct interactions b/t individuals in the populations
Territoriality
Defense of a bounded physical space against encroachmeny by others
Population
A group of individuals of a single species living in the same general area
Described by their boundaries & size
Ex: boundaries can be an island or lake
Demographics
Study of these vital statistics of populations & how they change over time
Life table: use to summarize survival & reproductive rates of individuals in specific age-groups within population
Chorts are needed; group of individuals of same age from birth til death
Can represent Survivorship Curve
a plot of the proportion or #s in a cohort still alive at each age
Reproductive Rates
Demographers ignore males and focus on the female b/c females produce offspring
Demographers view pop in terms of females giving birth to new females