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Ch 51-53 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - the long-term prevailing weather conditions in a given area
      - Four physical factors
        
        Temperature
        
        Sunlight
        
        Precipitation
        
        Wind
      - Global Climate Patterns
        
        determined largely by the input of solar energy and the Earth's movement in space
        
        Seasonality
        
        Middle to high latitudes
        
        Earth;s tilted axis of rotation and its annual passage around the sun cause strong seasonal cycles in day length , solar rotation and temperature
        
        Example, the belts of wet and dry air on either side of the equator move slightly northward and southward as the sun's angle changes
        
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      - Bodies of water
        
        ocean currents influence climate along the coasts of continents by heating or cooling overlying air masses the pass across the land
        
        water has a high specific heat so oceans and large lakes tend to moderate the climate of nearby land
      - Mountains
        
        mountains influence air flow over land
        
        Rain shadow
        
        when warm moist air approaches a mountain, the air rises and cools, releasing moisture on the windward side of the peak
        
        on the leewards side, cooler dry air descends, absorbing moisture
      - Microclimate
        
        very fine, localized patterns in the climatic conditions
        
        abiotic
        
        nonliving factors influence the distribution and abundance of organisms
        
        biotic
        
        living factors the other organism that are part of an individual's environment
        
        influences the distribution and abundance of life on Earth
      - Global Climate Change
        
        climate change
        
        a directional change to the global climate that lasts three decades or more
  - - - a plot of the annual mean temperature and precipitation in a particular region
    - - most terrestrial biomes are named for major physical or climatic features and for their predominant vegetation
      - each biome is characterized by microorganisms, fungi, and animals adapted to that particular environment
      - Canopy
        
        the low-tree layer, the shrub understory, the ground layer of herbaceous plants, the forest floor, and the root layer
      - Ecotone
        
        area of intergradation
    - - disturbance
        
        an event such as a storm, fire, or human activity that changes a community, removing organisms from it and altering resource availability
  - - - aphotic zone
        
        the region where little light penetrates
      - photic zone
        
        the region where there is sufficient light for photosynthesis
      - pelagic zone
        
        made up by the aphotic and photic zones
      - abyssal zone
        
        the part of the ocean 2,000-6,000 m below the surface
      - benthic zone
        
        made up of sand and organic and inorganic sediments
        
        Benthos
        
        occupants of the benthic zone
        
        major source of food
        
        detritus
        
        dead organic matter
      - Thermocline
        
        narrow layer of abrupt temperature change
        
        separates the more uniformly warm upper layer from more uniformly cold deeper waters
      - turnover
        
        sends oxygenated water from a lake's surface to the bottom and brings nutrient-rich water from the bottom to the surface in both spring and summer
  - - - dispersal
        
        the movement of individuals or gametes away from their area of origin or from centers of high population density
        
        For example, while land-bound kangaroos have not reached Africa under their own power, other organisms that disperse more readily, such as some birds, have.
- - - - What stimulus elicits the behavior, and what physiological mechanisms mediate the response ?
      - How does the animal's experience during growth and development influence the response?
      - How does the behavior aid survival and reproduction?
      - 4.What is the behavior's evolutionary history?
      - The first two questions ask about proximate causation
        
        how a behavior occurs of is modified
      - The last two questions ask about ultimate causation
        
        why a behavior occurs in the context of natural selection
        
        central to behavioral ecology
        
        the study of the ecological and evolutionary basis for animal behavior
    - - a sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to a simple stimulus
      - patterns are unchangeable and , once limited, are usually carried to completion
      - the trigger for the behavior is an external cue called a sign stimulus
        
        For example: red objects that prompts the male stickleback's aggressive behavior
    - - a regular, long-distance change in location
      - many animals pass through environments they have not previously encountered.
      - some migrating animals track their position relative to the sun, even though the sun's position relative to Earth changes throughout the day
        
        circadian clock
        
        an internal mechanism that maintains a 24 hour activity rhythm or cycle
        
        For example, migrating birds orient differently relative to the un at distinct times of the day
        
        Nocturnal animals can instead use the North Star, which has a constant position in the night sky
        
        clock is synchronized with the light and dark cycles of the environment but can maintain rhythmic activity even under constant environmental conditions.
        
        Circannual rhythms
        
        behavioral rhythms linked to the yearly cycle of seasons
        
        influenced by periods of daylight and darkness
        
        Example: bird species have shown artificial environment with extended daylight can induce out-of-season migratory behavior
    - - Signal
        
        a stimulus transmitted from one organism to another
      - Communication
        
        the transmission and reception of signals between animals
        
        has a role in the proximate causation of behavior
    - - communicating through odors and or tastes
      - especially common among mammals and insects and often relate to reproductive behavior
        
        pheromones are the basis for the chemical communication in fruit fly courtship
      - Example: pheromones produced by the queen and her daughters maintain the hive's complex social order
      - can act as alarm signals
        
        for example, when a minnow or catfish is injured, a substance released from the fish's skin disperses in the water, inducing fright response in the other fish.
  - - - cross-fostering study
        
        young of one species are placed in the care of adults from another species in the same or similar environment
        
        Example, certain mouse species have behaviors well suited for cross-fostering studies
        
        Male California mice are highly aggressive toward other mice and provide extensive parental care
        
        can pass on to progeny
        
        when the cross fostered California mice became parents, they spent less time retrieving offspring who wandered off than did California mice raised by their own species
    - - the modification of behavior as a result of specific experiences
      - capacity of learning depends on nervous system organization established during development following instructions encoded in the genome
      - learning involves the formation of memories by specific changes in neuronal connectivity
      - not decided between nature (genes) and nurture (environment), but explore contributions of both
    - - the establishment of long-lasting behavioral response to a particular individual or object
      - takes place on during a specific time period in development called sensitive period
        
        For example, among gulls, the sensitive period for a parent to bond with its young lasts one to two days. During the sensitive period , the young imprint on their parent and learn basic behaviors, while parent learns to recognize their offspring
    - - Spatial Learning
        
        the establishment or memory that reflects the environment 's spatial structure
      - Cognitive Map
        
        representation in an animal's nervous system of the spatial relationships between objects in its surroundings
        
        example, a relative of ravens, crows, and jays. Nutcrackers hide pine seeds for retrieval during the winter
        
        by experimentally varying distance between landmarks in the birds' environment , researchers discovered that the birds kept track of the halfway point between landmarks
    - - the ability to associate one environmental feature (such as color) with another (such as foul taste)
      - classical conditioning
        
        an arbitrary stimulus becomes associated with a particular outcome.
        
        Example, ringing a bell before feeding the dog, the dog would eventually salivate when the bell sounded, anticipating food.
      - Operant conditioning
        
        trial-and-error learning
        
        an animal first learns to associate first learns to associate one of its behaviors with a reward or punishment and then tends to repeat or avoid that behavior
    - - cognition
        
        the process of knowing that involves awareness, reasoning, recollection , and judgment
      - Problem solving
        
        the cognitive activity of devising a method to proceed from one state to another in the face of real or apparent obstacles
        
        For example, if a chimpanzee is placed in a room with several boxes on the floor and a banana hung high out of reach , the chimpanzee can assess the situation and stack the boxes, enabling it to reach the food
    - - animals learn to solve problems by observing the behavior of other individuals
      - For Example, young wild chimpanzee learn how to crack open oil palm nuts with two stones by copying experienced chimpanzees
  - - - foraging
        
        food-obtaining behavior
        
        includes not only eating but also any activities an animal uses to search for, recognize, and capture food items
      - Forager
        
        a variation in the gene that dictates how far Drosophila larvae travel when foraging
    - - natural selection should favor a foraging behavior that minimizes the costs of foraging and maximizes the benefits
      - foraging behavior is a compromise between the benefits of nutrition and the costs of obtaining food
    - - monogamous
        
        one male mating with on female
      - polygamous
        
        an individual of one sex mating with several of the other
        
        involves polygyny
        
        a single male and many females
        
        polyandry
        
        a single female and multiple males
      - Sexual Dimorphism
        
        the extent to which males and females differ in appearance
        
        among monogamous species, males and females look very similar
        
        among polygamous species, the sex that attracts multiple mating partners is typically showier and larger than the opposite sex
    - - sexual dimorphism results from sexual selection , a form of natural selection in which differences in reproductive success among individuals are a consequence of differences in mating success
      - Intersexual Selection
        
        members of one sex choose mates on the basis of characteristics of the other sex, such as courtship songs
      - Intrasexual Selection
        
        involves competition between members of one sex for mates
      - Mate Choice
        
        a female whose mate choice is a healthy male is likely to produce more offspring that survive to reproduce
        
        Ornaments such as long eye stalks in flies and bright coloration in birds correlate in general with health and vitality
        
        Mate-choice copying
        
        a behavior in which individuals in a population copy the mate choice of others
    - - Agonistic behavior
        
        an often-ritualized contest that determines which competitor gains access to a resource such as food or a mate
        
        extremely high in vertebrate species
  - - - antidiuretic horomone(ADH)
        
        this peptide is released during mating and binds to specific receptor in the central nervous system
        
        the vasopressin receptor gene is much more highly expressed in the brain of prairie voles than in the brain meadow voles
      - Altruism fitness
        
        to describe the behavior that reduces an animal's individual fitness but increases the fitness of other individuals in the population
        
        Reciprocal Altruism
        
        invoked to explain altruism that occurs between unrelated humans
      - Inclusive fitness
        
        the total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables other close relatives to produce offspring
    - - Coefficient of relatedness
        
        r, equals the fraction of genes that, on average are shared
        
        natural selection favors altruism when the benefit to the recipient multiplied by the coefficient or relatedness exceeds the costs to the altruist
        
        Hamilton's Rule
        
        rB>C
      - Kin selection
        
        natural selection that thus favors altruism by enhancing the reproductive success of relatives
- - - - a group of individuals of single species living in the same general area
      - members of a population rely on the same resources, are influenced by similar environmental factors, and are likely to interact and breed with one another
      - described by their boundaries and size (the number of individuals living within those boundaries).
    - - Density
        
        a population is the number of individuals per unit area or volume: the number of oak trees per square kilo meter in the Minnesota
        
        Density: A dynamic perspective
        
        population size and density can be determined by counting all individuals within the boundaries of the population
        
        mark-recapture method
        
        used to estimate the size of wildlife population
        
        Immigration
        
        the influx of new individuals from other areas
        
        Emigration
        
        the movement of individuals out of a population and into other location
      - Dispersion
        
        the pattern of spacing among individuals within the boundaries of the population
        
        Patterns of Dispersion
        
        Clumped
        
        individuals are aggregated in patches
        
        Example, plants and fungi are often clumped where soil conditions and other environmental factors favor germination and growth
        
        clumping may also be associated with mating behavior
        
        Uniform
        
        evenly spaced
        
        pattern of dispersion may result from direct interactions between individuals in the population
        
        some plants secrete chemicals that inhibit the germination and growth of nearby individuals that could compete for resources
        
        Random
        
        the position of each individual in a population is independent of other individuals
        
        this pattern occurs in the absence of strong attractions or repulsion among individuals or where key physical or chemical factors are relatively constant across the study area
      - Demographics
        
        demography
        
        the study of these vital statistics of populations and how they change over time.
      - Life tables
        
        summarizes the survival and reproductive rates of individuals in specific age-groups within a population
        
        cohort
        
        a group of individuals of the same age , from birth until all of the individuals are dead
      - Survivorship Curves
        
        a plot of the proportion or numbers in a cohort still alive at each stage
  - - - life history traits of an organism are evolutionary outcomes reflected in its development, physiology, and behavior
    - - "one-shot" pattern of big-bang reproduction
    - - repeated reproduction
      - Example, a female loggerhead turtle produces four clutches totaling approximately 300 eggs in a year
    - - selection for traits that are advantageous at high densities
    - - selection for traits that maximize reproductive success in uncrowded environments
    - - are influenced by many factors and in turn affect other species
      - For example, fluctuations in fish populations affect populations of seabirds that eat fish
    - - immigration and emmigration are particularly important when a number of local populations are linked
  - - - a birth rate or death rate that does not change with population density
    - - a death rate that increases with population density or a birth rate that falls with rising density
    - - Competition for Resources
        
        increasing population density intensifies competition for nutrients and other resources, reducing reproductive rates.
      - Disease
        
        if the transmission rate of a disease increases as population becomes more crowded, then the disease's impact is density dependent
      - Predation
        
        if a predator captures more food as the population density of the prey increases .
      - Territoriality
        
        limit population density when space becomes the resource for which individuals compete.
      - Toxic Waste
        
        ethanol that accumulates in the wine is toxic to yeasts and contributes to density-dependent regulation of yeast.
      - Intrinsic Factors
        
        can regulate population size
        
        Example: white-footed- mice in a field enclosure can drop even when food and shelter are abundant
  - - - the relative number of individuals of each age in the population
      - not only predict population trends but also can illuminate social conditions
    - - demographic transition
        
        the movement from high birth and death rates toward low birth and death rates, which tends to accompany industrialization and improve living conditions
    - - hard to estimate
    - - The aggregate land and water area required by a person, city, or nation to produce all of the resources it consumes and to absorb all of the waste it generates