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Imperial Image (H408/22) - OCR A-level Classics - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Text was written towards the end of Augustus' life
    - - Seems likely that this was written to ensure Augustus was remembered in a particular way
  - - - :crossed_swords: 9 Toast to Actium
        
        Analysis
        
        'A Roman' - subtle reference to Antony, unnamed to avoid complications in the history of the CIVIL WAR
        
        'Woman' - subtle reference to Cleopatra
        
        'Eunuchs' - a man who has been castrated; an attack on Antony's virtus, as he was married to someone of a higher status, and hence is questioning of what it is to be a man
        
        'Shameful pavilion' - what slaves carry a monarch on; reference to the decadence and luxuria
        
        'Warlike standards' - suggests that both Antony & Cleopatra are to be blamed for the war, when in fact Octavian was the one who declared war after the reading of Antony's will
        
        'Pompey' - a reference to Sextus Pompey, who blockaded trade routes and nearly caused a famine in Rome in 38BC
        
        'Faithless slaves' - Pompey enlisted slaves into the army, which Romans found disgraceful as due to threatened social order
        
        'Two thousand Gauls' - reference to those who abandoned Antony and joined Octavian
        
        'War.. Jugurtha' - comparing to other great Roman generals who fought in the East
        
        'Scarlet cloak for black' - other leader changes their cloak in mourning
        
        'Banishing fear' - wine is no longer in celebration, but rather a distraction for the uncertainty ahead
        
        Factfile
        
        Significance: Celebrates Octavian's victory at ACTIUM
        
        Date: 30BC
        
        Overview
        
        One of the earliest works celebrating the victory, addressed to his patron Maecenas
        
        Creates a festive atmosphere, mentioning Caecuban wine, a famous Italian variety
        
        Doesn't explicitly mentions Antony or Cleopatra
        
        He overly focuses on the scandalous actions of Antony and Cleopatra, allowing the reader to forget about the complexities of the war
        
        Only detail about battle itself is the desertion from Antony's side by the Gallic king Amyntas and his joining of Octavian's side
        
        Rest of the battle is left to the reader's imagination
        
        Poem ends by comparing this victory to other previous military victories
    - - :crossed_swords::postal_horn:1.37 Cleopatra #
        
        Analysis
        
        'Salian feast' - reference to sumptuous and aristocratic event
        
        'as...sparrow / hawk...gentle dove' - prey and predator imagery, showing Cleopatra as helpless and vulnerable; interesting in that a dove is a symbol for Venus (referencing the doomed love affair with Antony?)
        
        'unfettered feet' - reference to being under servitude
        
        'queen' - Romans were not fans of monarchy
        
        'Fortune's favour' - thought that fortune would favour her
        
        'perish more nobly' - didn't want to die at the hand of Octavian
        
        'calm face' - she kept face until the end; didn't want to make it seem as if she was defeated
        
        'touch...courage' - she was brave to take her own life; the Romans did not condemn suicide - it was not a shameful act
        
        Overview
        
        Addressed directly to the reader
        
        Encourages the reader to prepare for the feast
        
        Focus of the poem is on Cleopatra; he demonises her
        
        Ends with addressing her suicide
        
        Factfile
        
        Significance: Focuses on Cleopatra's role in and after ACTIUM
        
        Date: 23BC (7 years after TOAST TO ACTIUM)
      - 3.14
      - 3.6
      - 4.4
      - 4.15
  - - - 3.4
      - :crossed_swords::postal_horn:3.11 Woman's Power #
        
        Analysis
        
        'Medea of Colchis' 'Amazon Penthesilea' - reference to other famous and strong women
        
        'walls of Rome and the Senate' - a metonym for Rome itself
        
        'Jupiter' vs 'Anubis; 'Tiber' vs 'Nile' - contrasting pairs
        
        'Tarpeian Rock... statues' - metonym for Rome
        
        'saved by Augustus' - hyperbolic exaggeration
        
        Overview
        
        Explains how he was enslaved by love for his former lover
        
        Presents himself as powerless against love, and compares himself to other mythical heroes
        
        Contrasts threatening Egypt with a glorious Rome; comparisons of symbols of both states
        
        Skips over BATTLE OF ACTIUM events
        
        Ends with a reference to Apollo of Actium
        
        Propertius seems to glorify that battle by stressing Cleopatra's strengths
        
        Calls into question whether Antony is to blame
        
        Factfile
        
        Date: c.23BC
        
        Significance: Conveys power of Cleopatra over Antony and her threat to Rome
      - 3.12
      - 4.6
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- - - - Date - c. 31 BC
      - Material - Egyptian Basanite
      - Currently located - The Louvre, Paris, France
      - Significance - depicts Livia as a typical Roman matrona, implying traditional values
    - - Lacks strong emotional expression, in line w/ classical style Romans inherited from 5th century Greece
      - Not unrealistic or idealised version
      - Prominent nose & small mouth & distinctive chin are likely real imitations
      - Portrait is typical of Roman Republic; high realism
      - Shown as quintessentially Roman - reinforced by hairstyle: roll of hair on top w/ bun at nape of neck (popular in 1st Century BC)
  - - - Change in public image post-29 BC from militaristic imagery to one of a magistrate and a peacetime politician
      - Obverse carries on by stating his achievements next to his portrait, and he still calls himself the 'son of a god'
    - - Laurel wreath
        
        Signifies the triple triumph of the previous year
      - Magistrate's chair, scroll, magistrate's document box
        
        Shows Octavian as a consul, legally undoing any unconstitutional laws he had to initiate under civil wars
    - - Coin struck by: unknown mint
      - Date: 28BC
      - Text Reads: IMP CAESAR DIVI F COS VI // LEGES ET IVRA P R ESTITVIT
      - Translation: Imperator Caesar, son of a god, consul for the sixth time // He restored to/of the Roman people their laws and rights
      - Significance: Introduces idea that Octavian was the Republic's savior
  - - - Denarius is a silver coin, which would be for lower classes and hence would be in a larger circulation (this one would be in the army), mostly in the plebian, rather than the patrician or equestrian class
      - Is a forceful reminder of the carefully crafted image of Octavian
      - Commissioned especially after BATTLE OF ACTIUM
      - Coins are easily distributed, so is easy to pass along propaganda messages
      - Use of 'Caesar' reiterates power
      - Portrayal of the Pax on the same coin associates her with Octavian, and hence communicates the idea of peace though war, as she is the personification of peace
      - 'Divi F' again reiterates power and shows alliance with the gods
    - - Text Reads: CAESAR DIVI F
      - Coin struck by: unknown Italian mint
      - Translation: Caesar (Octavian), son of a god
      - Date: 32-39BC
      - Significance: Commissioned especially to pay his armies and to convey his promise: through war, peace
    - - Octavian's youthful complexion is a hint towards Apollo
      - Cornucopiae
        
        Symbol of abundance and agricultural yield - a reference to the grain gained
      - Oliver branch (hiketeria)
        
        Symbol of peace associated with Pax
        
        Can be used to show status
  - - - Text Reads - C CAESAR COS PONT AUG // C CAESAR DICT PERP PONT MAX
      - Translation - Gaius Caesar (Octavian), consul, priest of the augurs // Gaius Caesar (Julius), dictator in perpetuity, pontifex maximus
      - Coin Struck By - unknown
      - Date - 43BC
      - Significance - one of Octavian's earliest attempts at crafting his public image, by linking himself with Julius Caesar
    - - One of the earliest methods of propaganda
      - Align Octavian with Caesar's memory
      - Solidify the fact that Octavian was the rightful heir to Caesar's power
      - Caesar was one of first Romans to use portrait on coins - Octavian wanted to follow this example
      - Cleverly highlights similarity and differences between the 2 men
      - Each side follows model: name, highest government position, highest religious position
      - Caesar's side featured positions held for life WHILST Octavian's side featured elected positions that lasted a set amount of time
      - Octavian aimed to stress link to Caesar, but also point out differences between their policies
      - Octavian wanted to seem less threatening to those in power
    - - Laurel wreath on Caesar's head
        
        References military victories
        
        Senate had allowed Caesar to wear the wreath at any time
        
        A sign of honour
- - - - Caesar was part of Julian (Iulian) clan, lineage tracing back to Rome's founders; Aeneas and divine mother, Venus and Romulus and divine father Mars
      - Caesar was popular with Romans and legions
      - Most powerful man in 1st Century BC
      - Climbed political ladder: Pontifex Maximus in 63BC then Consul in 59BC
      - Sought to improve living conditions for the impoverished city dwellers through initiatives like the land distrubution bill
      - Made an informal alliance with Rome's leading men: Pompey the Great & Crassus - known as First Triumvirate
      - Triumvirate was the 3 most powerful men in the Empire, influencing politics - seen as unconstitutional, some even accused triumvirs of treason against Rome
      - Each turned on each other, vying for sole power
      - Crassus died in 53BC in Parthian military campaign, leaving only Caesar & Pompey
      - Squabbling led to CIVIL WAR in 49BC; Caesar led army over Rubicon river and into Rome
      - Year later Caesar won decisive victory at Pharsalus, Greece, forcing Pompey to flee to Egypt where he was captured & beheaded
      - After CIVIL WAR, named dictator of Rome for a year; in 47BC named dictator for 10 years; in 44BC named Dictator in Perpetuity - in all but name, he was King of Rome
      - While dictator started architectual projects to improve Rome, including the Forum Iulium (religious and civic space), doubling military pay, being clement on those who fought on Pompey's side
      - On IDES OF MARCH (15th March) 44BC, Caesar ambushed in Theatre of Pompey by 60 men led by Brutus & Cassius, overpowering him and stabbing him fatally 23 times
    - - Octavian enters the Senate
        
        Mark Anthony also wanted to inherit Caesar's power and tried to position himself as a heir
        
        Anthony had a speech at the funeral attacking the assassins and turning popular opinion against them
        
        Senators were afraid of Anthony seizing power, hence Octavian was the lesser of 2 evils
        
        Despite being 18, Octavian had the backing of the majority of the Senate and was indited in, despite the usual minimum wage was 30
        
        Octavian helped lead an army against Anthony in Mutina; April 43 BC ended in Anthony's defeat and retreat
        
        Two consuls **Hirtius and Pansa died, leaving Octavian as sole commander of Senate's army (campaign mentioned in Suetonius' Life of Augustus 10-11)
        
        Senate misplayed their hand by refusing to give Octavian honours for the victory - Octavian retaliated by not persuing Anthony
        
        Octavian marched onto Rome and demanded consulship; with no army Senate had to give in, with a show election and Octavian was declared consul in August 43BC (was written about in Res Gestae
        
        Octavian managed to present himself as Caesar's successor in just over a year
      - Octavian fufils Julius Caesar's promises
        
        In early years, Octavian's public image was entirely defined by relationship to Julius Caesar; he wanted people to see him as legitimate heir to not only name, but also political power
        
        First action in Rome was to fufill Caesar's will - give 75 denarii to each plebian (Octavian had to borrow money, but it was worth it, winning him popularity with urban poor and solidifying his image of a heir)
        
        Used the panem et circuses (bread and entertainment) tactic
        
        During some GAMES, a comet appeared in the sky, and Octavian claimed this was Julius Caesar rising to the sky to become a god (apotheosis)
      - Octavian entered political arena in 44BC, shortly after Caesar's assassination at 18 years of age
        
        Born into wealthy but politically insignificant family, the Octavii; background meant he was destined to never be a major player in politics, which placed a great emphasis on achievements of predecessors
        
        Caesar called Octavian his heir, and requested Octavian takes his name - was interpreted by Octavian as a legal adoption
        
        Roman law had no distinguishment between adopted and biological children, giving Octavian a powerful, even divine, ancestry, helping his reputation
    - - Octavian forms alliance with Mark Anthony and Lepidus in 43BC known as Second Triumvirate
      - Second Triumvirate, unlike First Triumvirate, was ratified by law and gave extraordinary powers for 5 years
      - Set out proscriptions (which were public), naming individual senators as enemies; once proscribed, property could be confiscated and individual could be legally killed
      - Proscriptions helped fill pockets of Triumvirate through sale of confiscated goods, which later helped to pay for personal armies
      - There is a disagreement as to how many were prescribed, but is estimated that between 100-300 senators were killed out of 900
      - Octavian must have seemed rutheless to political savvy upper classes, but it's unclear how much the poor classes knew about the proscriptions
    - - In 42BC Senate declared Julius Caesar a god, allowing Octavian to call himself divi filius
      - He incorporated this into his coins to communicate his semi-divine status to Romans - example is an aureus of Octavian which calls Caesar 'divos Iulius' and Octavian 'divi filius'
      - His claim to be divi filius gave him an aura of importance and authority, putting him on par with heroic demigods such as Aeneas and Hercules
    - - Both Anthony and Octavian presented themselves as heirs to Caesar, so they needed to be seen as to avenge his murder
      - 42BC - triumvirs launched military campaign against assassins at BATTLE OF PHILIPPI, forcing Brutus & Cassius to suicide
      - Octavian promised to dedicate temple to Mars Ultor, fufilling it in 2BC when Forum of Augustus was unveiled
      - Both men fufilled their duty and removed political opposition in one sweep, making Second Triumvirate the most powerful group of men in Rome
  - - - Octavian has removed all obstacles to power w/ Second Triumvirate firmly in command of Roman Empire
      - Triumvirs drew up the TREATY OF BRUNDISIUM, splitting the Empire into sphere's of governance - Octavian had western provinces, Antony had eastern provinces, Lepidus had African provinces
    - - Sextus Pompey, son of Pompey the Great, had taken over Sicily and used this stronghold to blockade Rome's trade routes
      - Blockade made it difficult to import grain into Rome, nearly causing a famine in 39BC
      - Octavian worked with Agrippa to plan a naval campaign against Sextus Pompeius, who needed to be dealt with forcibly
      - 38BC - Octavian adds title Imperator, strengthening ties to Caesar, who also held the title, and encouraging the idea that Octavian was a great military leader, despite not having an illustrous career as a general yet
      - July 36BC - Agrippa trained and gathered fleet, leading a naval invasion of Sicily, destroying Sextus' navy
      - Naval invasion is mentioned in SECTION 25 of RES GESTAE, but Sextus is not mentioned by name and it's not mentioned that he was a Roman citizen, to not make the invasion seem like a civil war
      - Campaign was celebrated as a great personal victory; he erected a rostral column decorated with defeated ships' prows and topped with a golden statue of himself
    - - Triumvirate begin to turn on each other - 36BC saw Octavian bribe Lepidus' legions to turn on him, effectively ending Lepidus' career and leading to his exile to his country estate in Italy until his death in 12BC
      - Lepidus' exit from politics left Octavian & Antony as the foremost Roman politicians
      - Increasing competition between the two men led to CIVIL WAR in 32BC
      - Each man knew that their political futures hinged on winning over heads/hearts of Roman people/Senate/army, leading to an all-out propaganda battle highlighting benefits of each man and their visions for Rome
    - - Elite senatorial class was a small minority in Roman population - urban poor was the most numerous
      - Octavian realised, like Caesar, that the support of urban poor would be a powerful asset, so he positioned himself as a generous benefactor of the Roman people and City itself
      - One strategy was to make his followers to make gifts to the Romans and City
      - 42BC - Octavian starts work on a temple in Caesar's honour, the Temple of the Deified Julius Caesar, in the Roman Forum
      - 34BC - Octavian's ally, Statilius Taurus, commissioned a new stone ampitheatre to hold gladitorial/animal games
      - Agrippa also oversaw an urban renewal program, repairing dilapidated streets and sewer systems, as well as public buildings
      - Projects were designed to be visible and to improve the quality of life of Romans, making Octavian's care and investment into Rome clear
      - Octavian's followers also made one-off gifts to the people - e.g. Agrippa throwing tokens (which could be exchanged for money/clothing) to crowds at theatres
      - Free admission to public baths & gifts of salt/oil were also made to urban poor
    - - Both Octavian and Antony chose a particular God as their patron
        
        Antony aligned himself w/ Dionysus, god of wine, theatre, & conqueror of the East
        
        Octavian aligned himself w/ Apollo, god of sun, prophecy, archery, music, medicine, civilisation himself; also stood for discipline, moderation, morality
      - Associating themselves with such gods were useful cultural touchstones to convey their 'personal brand'
        
        Octavian published his image alongside Apollo's symbols to convey the idea that he was a force for civilisation
        
        Antony published his image alongside Dionysus' symbols to convey the idea that he would end war and bring celebrations
        
        Potential problems:
        
        Would help with association, but would this associate them with Hellenistic kings, who were also associated with Gods? Would this make them seem like monarchs?
        
        Allowed a rumour to circulate that he was Apollo’s son, strengthening his association and divi filius status by seeming to descend from two gods.
        
        Made him seem more like Alexander the Great - he was also seen to be born in the night by the God Apollo visiting in the form of a snake
      - Example of such co-marketing is evident in a CISTOPHORUS OF ANTONY, which on the obverse depicted Antony and wife Octavia and on the reverse depicted Dionysus on a plinth, holding a canatharus and thrusus (his symbols) - led viewers to make a mental association between the man and the god, and so that they would be viewed in the same light
      - ‘Feast of the 12 Gods’
        
        In S.70 of LIFE OF AUGUSTUS, mentions a feast where he dressed as Apollo (early sign of preference), backfired - party was a ‘scandalous gossip’ due to adulterous behaviour and the fact it was a lavish party in a famine
      - P.Zanker’s The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (2014) (pp. 51-3) - “The relationship with Apollo would prove to be ideally suited to Octavian himself and to furthering his political image. All these goals and objectives, both during the struggle with Antony and then later in the building of a new order, could be associated with the God. Apollo stood first for purification and for punishment of any form of excess. As such he could well represent Italy’s position during the civil war with Antony, with the motto ‘Italy versus the Orient with its luxuria, against Egypt with its animal-headed gods and its decadence’. But after the victory was won, then Apollo took on his role as singer, lyre player, and god of peace and reconciliation. As the prophetic god, with sibyl and Sphinx, it was he who proclaimed the long-awaited new age.”
        
        Octavian took advantage of Apollo’s multi-faceted nature in establishing his public image - "furthering political image"
        
        During TRIUMVIRAL PERIOD, Apollo represented discipline and morality - counterpoint to Antony’s Dionysus
        
        After Antony’s defeat, this became less relevant, and so he began to focus on other aspects of the god.
    - - Women could not hold political office, but had immense role in supporting husbands
      - Marriages would be made/broken for political alliances
      - Womanly qualities include chastity and duty
      - Women who lacked the correct qualities could ruin the reputation of a budding politician
      - Octavian was married in his first four years in Rome: 1) Clodia, 2) Scribonia; both were made for political reasons
      - 38BC: Scribonia gives birth to Julia, Octavian's only child; on that day he divorces her
      - Livia was from one of the oldest noble families, making her an ideal partner for family connections
      - Livia has two sons from previous marriage: Tiberius & Drusus
      - Livia was a matrona - she is even said to have spun and wove all of Octavian's clothes
    - - Contrast between the traditional Roman household Octavian was trying to construct and the fact that Antony was in Egypt, engaging in a love affair with Cleopatra; this lead to Antony being associated with anti-Roman behaviours, decadence, effeminacy
        
        Calling an opponent's masculinity into question was a common smear tactic in Rome, as Roman's stuck to a very narrow view of Masculinity
        
        In 36BC, Antony moved to Egypt and married her, despite still being married to Octavia (infidelity was tolerated under Roman values, but bigamy wasn't)
        
        Supporters of Octavian claimed that he was bewitched by Cleopatra
        
        Antony even minted coins depicting himself and Cleopatra, with Romans claiming it was unfit for a foreign woman to appear on a coin as though she were an important Roman
        
        Antony spent his time enjoying sumptuous feasts and lavish entertainment, which supported Octavian's supporter's claims that she had corrupted Antony's traditional Roman austerity with her eastern taste for luxury
        
        This all contrasted highly with Octavian's relationship with Livia, who was from one of the oldest Roman noble families, dressed in a Roman fashion, behaved like a Roman matrona
      - Antony had picked Cleopatra as his mistress, causing a scandal in Rome due to the social standing difference
        
        Normally a Roman would pick someone of a lower social standing to themselves, possibly a slave, prostitute, foreigner, ensuring that children wouldn't be legitimate and hence couldn't inherit property or enter the realm of politics (in short they wouldn't be dangerous)
        
        Cleopatra was a foreigner, but she was the ruler of Egypt, and hence was his social equal or even better, meaning that her kids with Antony would become Egyptian royalty
        
        Cleopatra ended up having fraternal twins with Antony in 40BC - Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene, and later in 36BC Ptolemy Philadelphus; this was dangerous as they could return to Rome to claim a stake in power
      - Important to note that Cleopatra was not Antony's first mistress
        
        Cleopatra was known to have been Caesar's mistress, and even born him a son Caesarion; of course, this was downplayed by Octavian due to the problematic nature of this relationship, and hence was not mentioned by any of Octavian's client writers/artists
      - Later sources after Antony's death portray him as a love-struck fool, but such interpretation is perceived as far-fetched - it's more likely he took a 'big-picture' approach and had his image aimed not at Rome, but rather at the wealthy eastern empire
    - - 34BC - Antony uses Cleopatra's money to launch campaign into Armenia
      - Antony wanted to publicise his victory, seeing as his reputation was slipping, so proposed to conduct an event based on what would be a triumph in Rome: a parade in the streets, showing off their captured booty and slaves in a display of military might
      - What Antony conducted wasn't a triumph - it is now known as the 'DONATIONS OF ALEXANDRIA': he paraded through the streets of Alexandria with him and Cleopatra dressed as Dionysus/Osiris and Aphrodite/Iris, as well as proclaiming that Cleopatra was the 'Queen of Kings', with her children being 'Kings'
        
        Such a step was highly symbolic, and supporters of Octavian were quick to note that this could only mean one thing: Antony wanted to reduce the power of Rome and make Alexandria the heart of the Empire; indeed, this fear was warranted, as Antony had given away swathes of land that was Rome-controlled to Cleopatra and her family
        
        Also important to note is that Rome started of as a monarchy, but after actions of the last king Lucius Tarquinius, the Romans revolted and exiled him, creating the Roman Republic - explains the attitudes of Romans towards the monarchy
    - - Octavian's masterstroke against Antony happened in 32BC, when he seized the will of Antony from the Temple of Vesta, where the Vestal Virgins were entrusted to keep it safe
      - He called a meeting of the Senate and read the will aloud, which showed that Antony had wanted to be buried alongside Cleopatra in Alexandria - this was a sign of ultimate disloyalty to Rome
      - Octavian blamed Cleopatra for the will contents, not Antony, and used the Senate's anger to his advantage by encouraging them to declare war on Cleopatra and Egypt
        
        Important to note that Octavian ensured war was declared on Cleopatra and Egypt, not Antony, to avoid the fight from being perceived as a CIVIL WAR
      - Octavian then began working on his mausoleum at 30 years of age, which was normal in that Romans began working on such projects when they were still alive, but the timing was deliberate in coinciding with the reading of the will, as such action reinforced to the Senate and Rome of Octavian's intentions to stay in Rome for eternity
      - Important to note that we don't know the will that Octavian read was genuine: we know that Antony did keep a will in the possession of the Vestal Virgins and that Octavian took a will out of the temple and read it in front of the Senate (see Suetonius S17 of Life of Augustus) BUT we don't know if the will was a forgery
        Antony was not there to defend himself, so the Senate took Octavian's word
        In essence, whether the will was fake or not is not really important, as the fact remains that Antony was portrayed as an enemy of the State
    - - Octavian presented the war as a campaign to bring peace to the empire by putting down a foreign monarch - a clear example is seen in the Pax denarius coin, which highlight's Octavian's promise: through war, peace
        Cleopatra was the implied to be the disrupter of peace, but is never explicitly mentioned
      - Note that Octavian minted the coin to pay his armies and convey his message of peace, later using this propaganda message after the war
      - The divisive battle of the war was the BATTLE OF ACTIUM, which happened on the 2nd September 31BC - a naval battle of the coast of Greece, which would be heralded by Octavian as the grandest, most significant and glorious moments in Roman history
      - With Agrippa's help, Octavian led a victory against Cleopatra's and Antony's fleet, making them flee to Alexandria to await Octavian's inevitable advance, which happened a year later
      - Antony ended up falling on his sword on 1st August 30BC, but Cleopatra didn't follow straight away, as she had tried to negotiate (some claim seduce) Octavian, who was actually willing to make a deal with her: he would take her back to Rome for his triumph
      - She preferred death over humiliation, so she committed suicide on 12th August 30BC, allowing Octavian to finally take over Egypt and make it a Roman province, where although he was never officially made a Pharaoh, he was depicted in such a way
    - - The battle was not the largest or most tightly-fought battle, but certainly is significant, as it marked the end of Octavian's struggle with Antony, allowing him sole control of Rome for as long as he wished, for no-one had the money or experience to contest
      - BATTLE OF ACTIUM is a highly recurring event in art and literature as it marked a turning point and beginning of the age of Octavian and his uncontested regime
      - Truth of the battle was problematic, as it ended in flight and surrender, with Octavian taking the back-seat and allowing Agrippa to command the men
      - Most importantly, despite the official messages, the war was indeed a CIVIL WAR, and at least 7000 soldiers, most Roman, had died
      - The 'official' version of events was cobbled together through propaganda, including poems by Horace and Propertius
      - Poem 1: Horace's EPODE 9
      - Poem 2: Horace's ODES 1.37
      - Poem 3: Propertius' ELEGIES 3.11
      - Got a triple triumph to celebrate victories in Alexandria, Actium, Dalmatia
      - When celebrating victory over Cleopatra, his chariot was followed by spoils of war, statue of her, and her children locked in chains
      - Principle act was closing the gates of the Temple of Janus Quirinus, symbolising the restoration of peace in Rome
      - Triumphal arch built in Forum to commemorate event, and Temple of the Deified Julius Caesar was filled with war spoils
      - Octavian founded a new city in Greece called Nikopolis (City of Victory, after the Greek goddess Nike)
      - Talked about in S25 of RES GESTAE, albeit briefly
  - - - History remembers Octavian as the man who ended Republic and established principate, but during his lifetime he presented the idea that he saved the Republic from ambitious politicians and destructive civil wars.
      - Octavian had a multitude of extraordinary powers including: being admitted to the Senate and holding Consulship too long; commanding armies before holding public office; suspending courts and free elections as a triumvir - problematic as it could make him look like a despot and tyrant
      - 28BC - Octavian elected Princeps Senatus by Senate, allowing him to speak first in Senate and direct its actions to an extent; also allowed to stay consul
      - 27BC - Octavian relinquished the unconstitutional powers after being comfortable in the other positions conferred to him - event know as the FIRST SETTLEMENT, signalling the end of the crisis period of CIVIL WARS, and highlighting he wouldn't be holding absolute power like Caesar
      - Octavian, in practice, however, barely lost any power he had:
        
        As consul, he was able to direct the activities of Senate, and would have them vote additional powers for them
        
        Personal fortune amassed during his run as a triumvir allowed influence over elections
        
        Loyal veterans and commanders meant he had influence over the army