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Semasiology - Coggle Diagram

- - - - the relation of a language unit to the other language unit.
        the observation of various functional usages of the word in the context (described as contextual)
        Functional approach
        
        to make
        1) to construct (to make a shelf, chair);
        2) to become (to make a good teacher);
        3) to get, to acquire (to make friends, money) ;
        4) to force smb to do something = to make smb to do smth..
      - establishing relationships between words and concepts they denote;
        Referential approach
        
        3 components connected to meaning
        
        These relationships are represented by the semantic triangle. It was suggested by Frege and later Ogden and Richards adopted these three corner pattern with considerable modification.
        (три людини як три куди, один едж-кут(Fredge)
        другий Богдан (Ogden)
        третій Евеліна (Richards)
        
        concept (underlying the sound form)
        (влаштував концерт (concept) в хаті)
        
        The concept is not identical with meaning.
        
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        referent (the object to which this sound form refers)
        (кіт рефлекторно полапав голубів в будинку)
        
        meaning is connected with the referent (reflection in our mind of objects or relations that exist in reality.)
        
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        sound form of the word (are achieved through the concept that exist in our mind)Всі три зібрались в будинку де (голуб не має голосу)
        
        The sound form is associated with the referent through the concept.
        
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  - - - has many facets/sides (is not homogeneous)
        (два місця куди могли піти столи)
        
        Connotation
        (кімната яка приєднана на куті(connor)
        
        is what is suggested by or associated with a particular word meaning (it’s an additional component of the lexical meaning)
        (пов'язана з головним будинком, але є додатковим значенням)
        
        Connotations are subjective,
        expresses a personal attitude of the speaker to the object of speech.
        (значення не пряме, виражає ставлення людини ( в кімнату він йде поплакатись і помолитись)
        
        used in: poetic, humorous, casual, formal and other.
        
        A kitty jumped out of the tree.
        
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        Denotation
        (дерев'яна середина будинку)
        
        is the lexical nucleus of the word, which is connected with the referent (denotatum) and the notion the given word denotes.
        (центер будинку, з'єднана з кімнатою кота)
        
        is the basic or literal dictionary definition.
        
        is the objective relationship between a lexeme and the reality to which it refers.
        (лексема може бути sing
        слово - sing, sang, sung, singing...)
        (пряме значення лексеми до слова яке воно позначає. кіт - це кіт який ловить миші)
        
        Cat, a small fur-covered animal often kept as a pet in the house for catching mice
      - is the mean proper to the given linguistic unit in all its forms and distributions
        
        go, goes, went, going, gone 'the process of movement'
        (posess different gram meaning: tense, aspect, number; but in each form they have the same lexical meaning which one is the process of movement)
    - - is recurrent(періодичний) in identical forms of diff words of the same class (part of speech).
        
        These forms may express
        
        Tense meaning - asked, thought, walked
        
        Case- girl's, boy's, night's
        
        Plurality - boys, tables, places
  - - - We can take any definition and try to divide it. These components are a minimal distinctive unit of meaning and are called semes.
        (ці гілочки називаються семи)
        
        the semantic components /male/ and /adult/ serve to distinguish the meaning of 4 lexemes.
        Male Adult
        man, + +
        woman, - +
        boy, + -
        girl. - -
  - - - the ability of words to have more that one meaning
        (polycemess or polysemantic).
        (гном може виконувати більше ніж 1 функцію)
        
        One of the meaning is the main - basic meaning, the rest - are associated, secondary ( lexical-semantic variants) Associated meaning become evident in certain lexical and grammatical contexts.
        
        (1) a flat wide piece of wood, plastic etc to pin notices on
        (2) a flat piece of wood, e. g. for playing indoor games on
        (3) a long thin flat piece of wood used for making floors, walls, fences etc
        (4) a flat piece of hard material
        (5) the meals when you pay to stay somewhere
        (6) ??? a group of people in an organization which make the rules and important decisions (an art of directors)
        
        is used to describe cases when different meanings of the same word are related to each other
        (різні речі поєднані між собою)
        
        board (приклад 1,2,3) різні значення (дошка на якій пишеш, дошка на якій граєш, дошка від паркану) пов’язані тим що всюди є дошка)
        
        a result of one meaning being extended metaphorically over time to create new shades of meaning.
        (дошка засмоктує людей в себе, тому не можна підходити до гнома)
        
        6
- - - - natural because most English words have a monosyllabic structure.
  - - - Walter Skeat
        
        Homonyms proper (perfect homonyms)
        (ідеально співпадають з правилом)
        
        the same pronunciation and spelling, different meaning
        
        light – opposite to dark; light – opposite to heavy;
        
        Homophones.
        (мають телефон)
        
        the same pronunciation, different spelling
        
        son – sun
        (пишуть своєму синові що обруч з сонечком)
        
        Homographs
        (мають слухові апарати)
        
        identical spelling, different sound form and meaning,
        
        tear (N) – tear (V);
        (заплакали коли почули і розірвали книги що вчили їх міміки)
    - - FULL
        (повністю глухі)
        
        coincide in all their grammatical forms.
        
        their paradigms are identical.
        
        seal (N) (‘sea animal’) and seal (N) (‘a design put on paper by means of a stamp’),
      - PARTIAL
        (частково глухі)
        
        coincide only in some of their grammatical forms.
        
        lie (lied) – lie (lay, lain);
        found (Past Simple of to find) – found (‘to set up’, ‘to establish’).
    - - Lexical homonyms
        
        differ in the denotational component of their lexical meaning
        
        They are words of the same part of speech
        
        n. seal – n. seal
      - Lexical-grammatical homonyms
        
        differ both in lexical and grammatical meaning.
        
        Their paradigms are not identical
        
        Seal (N) – sea animal, to seal (verb)
        rose (a flower) (N) – rose (Past Simple of rise (V);
        maid (N) (‘female servant’) – made (V) (Past Simple of make)
        
        also can be found within the same part of speech
        
        found (Past Simple of find) – found (‘to set up’);
      - Grammatical homonyms
        
        differ in their grammatical meanings, they have different grammatical categories and are represented by numerous homonymous word forms.
        (different word forms of one and the same word)
        
        asked – asked, put – put (Past Simple coincide with Past Participle)
        brother’s – brothers
        
        go" is "go, went, gone
  - - - Convergent (сходитись) sound development
        
        when two or more phonetically distinct words coincided in their graphic forms
        
        lufu – MoE - love (N)
      - Borrowings
        спанч позичив палицю
        
        words borrowed from other languages may coincide with some native words
        
        Fr. peace – E. piece;
      - Conversion
        (переробив шапку з трусів)
        
        when verbs are built from nouns or adjectives without any affixes
        
        broadcast – to broadcast
      - Split of polysemy
        (повязка на голову розєдналась)
        
        When two or more meanings of a polysemantic word went so far away from the original sense that they came to be treated as belonging to separate lexical units
        
        nail – nail
      - created by means of abbreviation
        (сімс вкоротив собі футболку)
        
        cab – cabriolet; cab – cabbage
  - - - different meanings of the same word are related
        
        one lexeme
        
        coat
        
        an outer garment with sleeves for wearing outdoors
        
        an animals covering of fur
        
        a covering of paint or similar material’(e.g. coat of paint, coat of snow)
        The meanings here seem related (covering)
    - - different meanings of words are not related.
        They only have the same pronunciation and spelling.
        
        two different lexemes are involved
    - - The most objective criteria in the synchronic analysis of homonymy are
        
        DISTRIBUTIONAL ANALYSIS
        
        helps to differentiate cases of homonymy through different structural patterns.
        homonyms - words that belong to different parts of speech.
        
        N + V + N – I bought a book;
        
        N +V + Pr + N – I go to the cinema;
        
        N + V + Adj. – He was cruel;
        
        N + V + Adv. – He walks slowly;
        
        N + V + to + V – I want to sit;
        
        Art + Adj. + N – A beautiful girl. The pattern for a noun is:
        
        I can’t stand people who laugh at other people. They’d get a bigger laugh if they laughed themselves.
        
        The context helps to
        
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        TRANSFORMATIONAL ANALYSIS
        
        if the meanings of identical sound clusters can be explained with the help of identical kernel word groups, we have polysemy, if not – homonymy.
        
        Voice may mean sounds produced in speaking or seeing.
        
        Voice – the vibration of vocal chords to produce sounds.
        
        Voice is a grammatical category which expresses the relation between the object or person named by the subject of the sentence and the action denoted by the predicate.
        
        the same kernel phrase is used to describe the meaning of the first two words. they are polysemantic words.
        The third meaning is set apart and may be regarded as a homonym to a polysemantic word.
- - - - can not be applied to polysemantic words:
        
        every polysemantic word has a number of synonym. the exact number of synonym is equal to the number of individual meanings a polysemantic word possesses.
        (Кожна сім’я гномів(полісемія) має друзів
        Кількість друзів дорівнює кількості членів сім’ї гномів.)
        
        look
        1) See, watch, observe;
        2) Seem, appear (he looked at me, he looked pale ).
      - we can’t say that the lexical meaning (include den, con) is similar
        
        Denotation meaning is similar, connotation meaning is different.
        
        to die & to pass away, to finish & to terminate.
      - identical meaning is not the criterion of synonymy because there’s always some element of opposition between synonyms:
        
        handsome (can be applied to a man, a human being) & beautiful (has no such limitation).
        
        Cases of exact synonyms in E. are rare
        
        oculist – eye doctor; looking glass –mirror; fatherland – homeland; word formation – word building.
        
        Therefore we should modify the traditional definition of synonym
        
        are two or more words belonging to the same part of speech, having similar denotational component of the lexical meaning, interchangeable at least at some contexts but they are different in sound form, shades of meaning, emotional charge and valency.
        
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  - - - To enter synonymic relation it is necessary that the main semes of the denotational component of meaning should be identical.
        (для того щоб потрапити за певний столик потрібно що кожний мав однаковий характер)
        
        The same polysemantic word may belong to different synonymic sets.
        (різні члени сім'ї можуть належати до різних столів, діти - дитачий стіл, підлітки - інший стіл)
        
        Within every synonymic set there is the so called “synonymic dominant” which is a general term neutral in style and has a great combining power.
        (в кожному столику є головна людина, яка можу зі всіма потоваришувати)
        
        piece: slice ( bread, cheese ); lump ( sugar ); bit ( news ); morsel ( bread or meat ); cake ( soap ), chunk ( wood ), pinch ( salt ).
        
        In terms of(з точки зору) componental analysis as within the meaning of the word we can single out the main seme and differentiating semes.
        
        to walk: to go on foot, to go in a military manner to go in a leisurely way
        
        bright
        
        form synonymic sets with words brilliant, radiant, beaming, luminous - has the sense of light.
        
        form senonymic sets with words smart, intelligent, clever, capable. - has the meaning of capability
  - - - ones in which there is no changes either in denotational or connotational component of their lexical meaning, they are substitutable in any possible context
        
        They can not have synonymic dominants. !!!
        
        also, too; fatherland, motherland.
    - - synonyms belong to the same stylistic layer, and they have the same connotation, which is characterized by the difference in the differentiating semes of the denotational component of their lexical meaning.
        
        obtain and acquire both have a sense that roughly means ‘get’, but there are subtleties(тонкощі) to those senses that are not shared by both words. (John obtained/acquired three diplomas. John obtained permission to land. John acquired a British accent).
    - - have the same denotation but different stylistic connotation or dialectal reference.
        
        are used in different styles.
        
        to see & to behold. Both mean “to use the power of sight”, but the first belongs to neutral style and has the second meaning of “to understand” and the second word belongs to the literary-bookish style.
  - - - they are stylistically opposed to each other (native members are usually neutral in style)
        
        holy (E.) – sacred (Fr.) – consecrated (Lat.)
    - - (English – American) sweets – candy; shop – store; radio – wireless; underground – metro
    - - due to which Euphemisms appear
        
        is a word or an expression which is used instead of a rough or unpleasant expression.
        
        came into English in three ways
        
        Requirements of social etiquette:
        
        lavatory: ladies / men’s room; WC; closet;
        
        The existence of the so called taboo words
        
        It is considered sinful by church to use them too often
        
        God was replaced by phonetically similar words: goodness gracious! For goodness sake! Goodness knows! Go the Great unseen! etc.
        
        Requirements of style
        
        cemetery – bone yard, church yard, memorial park.
        to die – (poetic) to pass away, (coll.) to kick the bucket, to depart, to join the silent majority, to fall asleep, to be gone,
        
        Political correctness
        
        the poor – socially underprivileged, Negroes, blacks – Afro-Americans
- - - - They remain as stylistic devices to express solemnity (урочистість) (poetic style)
        
        per chance” – perhaps
  - - - They can also denote ancient cloths, weapon, means of transport
  - - - Semantic group of neologism connected with IT, politics, professions, sociology, advertising.
- - - - being an arrangement of phonemes it has a sond form
        (дзьоб)
      - being an arrangement of morpheme it has a morpheme structure
        (з моху пір'я)
      - being a central element of language system it is focused on the problems of phonology, morphology, syntaxes,lexicology,
        (галстук посередині тому він центральний елемент , він є смарт тому що зосереджується на всіх проблемах (дзьобі-звук, мох - пір'я, громашка - синтаксис, лексикологія)
        
        it is also studied by other sciences which have to do with language and speech (cognitive sciences, philosophy, psychology, sociology, sociolinguastics).
        
        There are a lot of diffinition of word depend upon the aim of the scolar and his/her approach.
        
        Bloomfield 1933: 178
        
        A word - a form which can occur in isolation and has meaning but which cannot be analysed into elements which can all occur alone and also have meaning.
        (ворона може виникнути в полі (в ізоляції) і мати ім'я(значення) АЛЕ її не можна розділити на елементи(частини тіла), які виникають і також мають назву
        
        F. de Saussure's theory of the linguistic sign 1959
        
        A word as a linguistic sign - a mental unit consisting of two facets, which cannot be separated:
        (слово - знак ворони, складається з двох крил, які не можуть бути роз'єднані)
        
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        The word is a unit of the language alongside of other units (phoneme, word phrases, sentences, morpheme), it's a unity of form and concept, (that is the sound form and a particular meaning capable of a particular grammatical employment).
        The word is the fundamental unit of language. It is a dialectical unity of form and content.
        
        The “word” is principal (основна) unit(одиниця) of language.
        (ворона - принц)
      - When it is used in speech it has a certain grammatical form which signals very as meaning.
        (громашка показує його грамотність і добре значення)
  - - - types
        
        • Phonetic
        
        buzz, roar. ( відтворюємо звуки)
        
        • Morphological
        
        airmail - mail by air,
        miniskirt – small skirt
        (слово яке складається з двох слів)
        
        • Semantic
        
        A watchdog – охоронець(собака – пряме значення, людина – не пряме значення)
        direct and figurative meaning
- - - - e g earth
        a. the ground under people's feet
        b. the world of man as contrasted to the world of heaven which was believed to be inhabited by God, the saints and the souls of the dead
        MoE earth – a planet of the solar system
  - - - It means that a word requires a narrow sense because of a borrowed synonym which interfered in its semantic structure
        
        e g. In OE the word land meant
        a. 'solid part of earth's surface'
        b. 'the territory of a nation' In the Middle English period, the French word country was borrowed of the word land ‘the territory of a nation' and thus narrowed its meaning.
        e. g. the French word enemy ousted the word foe that began to be used in poetic style.
    - - is the process as the result of which
        in a phrase made up of two words one of the elements is omitted and the meaning of the whole phrase is rendered by the remaining element.
        
        cut-price sale - sale; daily newspaper - daily, a musical show - a musical; to propose one's hand in marriage - to propose
    - - a language unit for a number of reasons became restricted in its usage.
        
        former token - Fr sign Now its used in set expressions: as love token, token of respect, in token of smth
- - - - affect (‘to have an effect on sth’) – effect (‘to make sth happen’) especially (‘particularly’) – specially (‘for a purpose’)
    - - complement (v) (‘to make a good combination with sth or sb’) – compliment (‘a remark that shows you admire someone’) continuous (‘continuing to happen’) – contiguous (‘next to sth’)
- - - - Antonyms can be easily found to words denoting quality
        
        hard – soft, good – bad
      - Not every word needs antonym though practically every word has a synonym.
        
        Many words of concrete meaning have no antonyms
        
        table, lamp, tree
      - a polysemantic word may have different antonyms
        
        fast - “fixed firmly” has an antonym loose;
        fast - “fast” has an antonym slow
      - When a word is used figuratively it develops oppositional semantic relations and has corresponding antonyms
        
        adj. "green" has no antonym, but if it’s used figuratively in the meaning of “inexperienced” it acquires an antonym (skilled); in the meaning of “green winter” its antonym will be “severe winter”.
  - - - Those which are formed by negative affixes
        
        The most productive negative prefix is UN-.
        less productive - IN-, IR-, IL-, IM-,
        DIS-, MIS-.
        
        Antonym-forming suffix impart to the meaning of the word the meaning of the presence or absence of the quality, feature, indicated by the root:
        
        fruitful, fruitless, faulty, faultless.
      - Those which are of different routes
        
        day – night, rich – poor, light – dark
    - - PHRASEOLOGICAL
        
        When they become components of phraseological groups or compound words they sometimes lose their absolute antonymic nature
        
        long – short, but long-headed (‘clever’, ‘prudent’) will not find its antonym in the phrase short-headed.
      - COMPLEX
        
        are those polysemantic words which have different opposites for their various meanings.
        
        soft:
        a)not hard, yielding (soft seat, nature);
        b) not loud (soft voice, soft colours);
        c)mild, not severe ( soft punishment, soft climate ).
        soft seat – hard seat,
        soft voice – harsh, loud voice,
        soft climate – severe climate
      - ABSOLUTE
        
        are completely opposite in meaning
        
        They are mostly found among:
        
        negative affix-formed antonyms (happy – unhappy, fruitful – fruitless);
        
        different route antonyms (good – bad, black – white).
- - - - Narrowing (specialization) of meaning
        
        a word of a broad meaning acquires a narrower, specialized meaning in which it can be applied only to some objects it had previously denoted
        
        wife
        OE - any woman
        MoE - a married woman
        deer
        it meant any wild beast from a mouse to a lion
        MoE - only a definite species of wild animals
        
        Toponyms
        
        • City 'any important town - будь-яке велике місто
        • the City 'a business part of London' - центр
        • highlands 'mountainous surroundings'
        the Highlands - 'the north and the northern-western part of Scotland - назва гір
        
        Extension (generalization, widening) of meaning
        
        is a gradual process when the meaning of a word becomes more general (extended) in the course of time (is the widening of the word usage)
        
        Reasons:
        1) contribution or resemblance in forms, position, similarity of function.
        2) extra-linguistic factors(те що впливає з закордону) or the borrowings of words(те що позичають)
        
        paper
        
        OE it was the name of a tree (Egypt plant papiros)
        
        MoE it is the material made out of fibre of wood, it is also used to denote a document or a newspaper or decorated coverings for walls.
        
        foreigner
        • OE somebody who lived out of doors
        • now - a person who lives abroad
      - Degradation (pejoration, deterioration) of meaning
        
        the process opposite to elevation as a result of which for one reason or another a word becomes disrepute (погана слава) or less respectable
        
        gossip
        • originally it meant a godparent
        • now - a man who is fond of spreading rumours
        
        Elevation (amelioration) of meaning
        
        acquiring of a better sense, the process that leads to the heightening of meaning, it is the development of a positive evaluative connotation
        
        minister
        • OE it meant a servant
        • MoE now it means an important public figure
      - Transference of meaning (results in stylistic devices – lexical or syntactical)
        
        is the transformation from literal meaning of the word to the figurative one
        
        Figurative language represents the idea in a new light comparing it to some other objects of reality
        
        Figures of speech (tropes):
        
        SIMILE,
        
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        METONYMY,
        
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        HYPERBOLE,
        
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        LITOTES
        
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        METAPHOR
        
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