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Flowers and Reproduction, Fruit types and fruit development have several…

- - - - may be widely dispered
      - germinate in numerous diverse sites
- - - - Pollen Tube
        
        Germinates the pollen grain on stigma
        
        Penetrates into loose/open tissue
        
        absorbs nutrients from stigma
        
        grows downward through style
        
        to the ovary
      - Located within pollen cell wall
      - Divides mitotically producing
        
        Large vegetative Cell
        
        Small generative cells
        
        Divides
        
        forms 2 sperm cells
    - - Embryo Sac
        
        Multi-nucleated megagametophyte
        
        Nuclei migrate through cytoplasm
        
        pulled by microtubules
        
        until 3 nuclei lie as each end
        
        and 2 lie in the center
  - - - Second sperm nucleus released from pollen tube
        
        Migrates from the synerid to the central cell
      - Undergoes karyogamy
        
        with both polar nuceli
        
        establishing a large endosperm nucleus
        
        that is triploid
        
        containing 3 fulls sets of genes
    - - one sperm fertilizes the egg
        
        forming a zygote
      - the other sperm fertilizes a polar nuclei
      - forming the primary endosperm nucleus
      - extraordinarily active
        
        begins to divide rapidly
        
        cell cycle only lasting a few hours
        
        by mitosis
    - - Plasmogamy
        
        Fusion of the protoplast
        
        of the gametes
      - Karyogamy
        
        Fusion of the nuclei
  - - - Above the Septal on Receptacle
      - Corolla
        
        petals together
      - Perianth
        
        Sepals and Petals together
      - Leaf like
        
        Broad
        
        Thin
        
        Flat
        
        Different from leaves because
        
        contain pigments other than chlorphyll
        
        Fewer or no fiibers
        
        tend to be thinner
        
        More delicately constructed
      - Attract the correct pollinators
    - - Above the Petals
      - Androecium
        
        referred to as male part of flower
        
        Produce pollen
      - Made of 2 parts
        
        Filament
        
        the stalk
        
        anther
        
        when pollen is produced
        
        Composed of diploid cells
        
        Each anther is 4 long columns
        
        of tissue
        
        very distinct and prepare for meiosis
    - - lowermost/outermost of the four appendages
      - Modified leaves
        
        enclose the other flower parts
        
        as they mature
      - Typically thickest,toughest, waxiest part of flower
        
        Protect the flower buds
        
        keep bacterial and fungal spores away
        
        Maintaining a high humidity inside bud
        
        deterring insects from feeding
    - - located at highest part of receptacle
      - 3 main parts
        
        Stigma
        
        catches pollen grains
        
        Style
        
        elevates the stigma
        
        to a useful position
        
        Ovary
        
        where megaspores are produced
    - - Stamens
      - Carpels
      - Petals
      - Sepals
      - Complete flower
        
        when a flower contains all 4
        
        Incomplete flower
        
        lack one or two of the appendages
  - - - Pushes the embryo deep to endosperm
      - usually delicate
        
        ephemeral in angiosperms
      - crushes by later growth of embryo
        
        not easily detectable in mature seed
    - - Embryos of seed plants
      - Leaf like structure
        
        involved in nutrient storage
        
        involved in nutrient transfer
        
        from the endosperm
    - - epicotyl
        
        embryonic stem
      - hypocotyl
        
        root/shoot junction
      - radicle
        
        embryonic root
  - - - Haploid Sex Cells
      - Egg
        
        females
        
        produced by meiosis
      - Sperm
        
        males
        
        produced by meiosis
      - One sperm and One egg form together
        
        to produce a Zygote
        
        grows to become a new individual
        
        diploid
        
        resembles parent
    - - also known as the sporophyte generation
      - Critical factor is sporophyte
        
        always diploid
        
        organs with cells
        
        capable of undergoing meiosis
        
        Meiosis results in haploid spores
        
        only in plants
        
        In animals results in haploid gametes
    - - Gametes
        
        Syngamy/Fertilization
        
        Gametes can fuse with other gametes
        
        producing diploid zygotes
        
        Do not undergo syngamy
        
        Will die
        
        cannot live by itself
        
        Cannot grow into new haploid individual
      - Spores
        
        Cannot undergo syngamy
        
        Can undergo mitosis
        
        grow into an entire new haploid plant
        
        known as a gametophyte
        
        During sexual reproduction
        
        do not produce diploid plant
        
        produced a haploid plant
    - - Megagametes
        
        Large eggs
        
        Cannot swim
        
        Megagametophytes
        
        Produce females
        
        oogamous mammals
        
        Megaspores
        
        only produces one in life cycle
      - Microgametes
        
        Small Sperm
        
        able to swim
        
        Microgametophytes
        
        produce males
        
        oogamous mammals
        
        Microspores
        
        only produces one in life cycle
  - - - mature ovule
      - after ovule develops into seed
    - - Exocarp
        
        the outer layer
        
        the skin or the peel
      - Mesocarp
        
        the middle layer
        
        also known as the flesh
      - Endocarp
        
        innermost layer
        
        may be tough like stones
        
        pit of a cherry
        
        May be thin
    - - Entire fruit wall
      - May be composed of 1,2, or all 3 layers
      - Thickness will vary with the fruit type
- - - - containing only ovarian tissue
      - Develops only from carpel tissue
    - - also known as a false fruit
      - if any non-ovarian tissue is present
    - - Develops from a single carpel/ovary
      - or fused carpels of single flower
      - Most common type of fruit
    - - Develops from crowding together
        
        of several separate carpels
        
        of one flower
      - one gynoceium fuse during development
      - Ex) Raspberries
      - Type of compound fruit
    - - formed by crowding together
        
        of individual fruits
        
        of any entire inflorescence
      - Ex) Figs, mulberries, and Pineapple
      - Type of Compound Fruit
  - - - Dehiscent Fruits
        
        break open and release seeds
        
        Developing from a single carpel
        
        Legume
        
        Fruit breaks open along both sides
        
        Ex) Peas
        
        Follicle
        
        Fruit breaks open along one side
        
        Ex) Milkweeds
        
        Developing from a compound gynoecium
        
        Capsule
        
        opens several different ways
        
        splitting between lines of fusion
        
        splitting into top/bottom
        
        splitting along lines of fusion
        
        opening by small pores
        
        Schizocarp
        
        Compound ovary that breaks
        
        into individual carpels
        
        called mericarps
      - Indehiscent Fruits
        
        do not break open and release seeds
        
        Developing from a single carpel
        
        Caryopsis
        
        Simple/small contains one seed
        
        Testa becomes fused to fruit wall
        
        Occurs during maturation
        
        Achene
        
        Similar to caryopsis
        
        seed/fruit remain distinct
        
        Fruit wall is thin and papery
        
        Samara
        
        One-seeded fruit
        
        winglike outgrowths of ovary wall
        
        Ex) Maples, Ash, and Alder
        
        Developing from a compound gynoecium
        
        Nut
        
        Gynoecium originally consists of carpels/ovules
        
        all but one ovule degenerate during development
        
        Pericarp is hard a maturity
        
        Ex) Walnut
      - Not typically eaten
    - - Typically eaten by animals
      - Berry
        
        A fleshy fruit with all 3 layers
        
        Mesocarp
        
        Endocarp
        
        Exocarp
        
        Are soft
      - Pome
        
        similar to a berry
        
        Endocarp is papery/leathery
        
        Ex) Apple
      - Drupe
        
        Similar to berry
        
        endocarp is hard
        
        sclerenchymatous
        
        Ex) Cherry or Peach
      - Pepo
        
        Fleshy fruit where exocarp is tough
        
        hard rind
        
        inner soft tissue
        
        may not be differentiated
        
        into 2 distinct layers
        
        Ex) pumpkins
      - Hesperidium
        
        Exocarp is leathery
        
        Ex) Citrus
- - - - produce critically important spores
      - if lack either then sexual reproduction is affected
    - - Do not produce spores
      - May be sepals or petals
      - Lack stamens or carpals
    - - Perfect Flower
        
        contain essential/nonessential organs
        
        may lack sepals/petals or both
        
        do not produce spores
        
        considered nonessential organs
      - Imperfect Flower
        
        lack either or both (essential/nonessential)
        
        Also considered incomplete flowers
    - - Monoecy
        
        condition of having staminate flowers
        
        located on the same plant/carpellate flowers
      - Ex) Cattails and corn
    - - Dioecy
        
        produce only staminate flowers
        
        Located on a different plant
      - Ex) Marijuana, dates, willows, and papaya
  - - - a flower becoming adapted for visitation
      - by a particular insect
        
        insect exploitation of the flower
      - Occurs between flowers and birds
    - - also known as regular
      - Radically symmetrical
        
        Any longitudinal cut through middle
        
        produces two halves- mirror images
    - - Bilaterally symmetrical
        
        only one longitudinal plane
        
        produces two halves- mirror images
      - Ex) insects, bats, and birds
        
        Flowers are evolving as well
        
        Pollinators are co-evolving
  - - - chemical reaction between pollen and carpels
      - prevent pollen growth
      - Occurs in self-pollination
    - - pollen tube grows
        
        stigma/style test proteins
        
        on the tube's surface
      - if one protein is produced by incompatible gene
        
        stigma/style block further pollen growth
      - In self-pollination
        
        all pollen tube genes match
        
        stigma/style and blocking occurs
        
        Plant cannot self-pollinate
  - - - Mutation to prevent petals
        
        saved energy
        
        can be used in other part of flower
      - Sepals are reduced or absent
      - ovaries dont need special protection
        
        entire flower may be tiny
      - Large feathery stigma
        
        increasing the surface area
        
        able to catch the pollen
      - Ex) grasses, oaks, hickories, and all confiers
        
        grow as dense populations
        
        typically in range lands or forests
  - - - anthers and stigma mature at different times
      - stamens and carpel cant form
      - Not very effective
    - - only if anthers/stigma mature at same time
      - due to pollen from cross pollination
  - - - Inferior Ovary
        
        may say other parts are epigynous
        
        ovary is under other parts
        
        may result if receptacle tissue
        
        grows upward around ovary
      - Superior Ovary
        
        may say other parts are hypogynous
        
        Ovary is above other parts
        
        Most common arrangement
        
        no fusion to ovary occurs
      - Half-inferior Ovary
        
        may say other parts are perigynous
        
        sepals,petals and stamens
        
        appear attached to the side
        
        Intermediate/partially buried ovaries
  - - - by pollen from different individual
    - - Pollination of a carpel by pollen
      - from the same flower/same plant
      - All genes come from the same parent
    - - Resulting in new combination of genes
      - may be better adapted than parents
    - - due to genetic diversity
      - ability to produce better adaptations
- - - - be establishing adventitious roots
      - if middle plant dies
        
        the ends become separated
        
        Act as individuals
    - - Cacti
        
        bracnhes are poorly attached
        
        can break off easily
        
        the parts form roots
        
        become independent
      - Saxifrage, grass, pineapple trees
        
        plantlets are formed
        
        where flowers would be expected
        
        like like small bulbs
        
        are known as bulbils
      - Willows and thistles
        
        adventitous shoot buds
        
        form on roots
        
        grow into plants
        
        Adventitious buds
        
        may grow out
        
        small clusters of trees
        
        may consists of a single individual
        
        even if parent is still alive
- - - - limited potential for growth
        
        due to apex being converted to a flower
      - terminal flower typically opens first
        
        lower ones open afterwards
        
        successively
      - simplest type
        
        below the terminal flower
        
        bract
        
        with axillary flower
    - - lowermost/outermost open first
        
        new flowers are initiated
      - Raceme
        
        major inflorescence axis
        
        flowers are borne on pedicels
        
        all are approx. same length
      - Catkins
        
        flowers are imperfect
        
        staminate
        
        carpellate
        
        Almost always small, wind-pollinated
      - Spadix
        
        spike-like inflorescence
        
        with imperfect flowers
        
        both types occur
        
        main axis is thick/fleshy
        
        minute flowers embedded
        
        subtended or enclosed by bract
        
        called a spathe
        
        Panicle
        
        branched raceme
        
        several flowers per branch
      - Spike
        
        Flowers are sessile
        
        lack a pedicel
        
        similar to raceme