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Chapters 51, 52, 53 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - the influx of new individuals from other areas
    - - defined as to estimate the size of wildlife populations
    - - the movement of individuals out of a population and into other locations
  - - - Intrinsic rate of increase
        
        defined as the per capita rate at which an exponentially growing population increases in size at each instant in time
      - Exponential population growth
        
        defined as when resources are unlimited, populations exhibit exponential growth, resulting in a J-shaped curve
      - Ex.) The Increasingly large number of elephants eventually caused enough damage to vegetation in the park that a collapse in their food supply was likely
    - - To find the difference of births and death: Change in population divided by change in time interval
      - We can rewrite the verbal equation to: Change in population divided by change in time interval is equal to the number of births minus the number of deaths
      - Verbal equation: Changes in population size = Births + Immigrants entering population - Deaths - Emigrants leaving population
  - - - defined as the defense of a bounded physical space against encroachment by other individuals
  - - - defined as the per capital rate of population growth approaches zero as the population size nears the carrying capacity (K).
    - - Laboratory populations of some small animals such as beetles and crustaceans, and some microorganisms, such as bacteria, Paramecium, and yeasts, fits an S-shaped curve fairly well under conditions limited resources
    - - symbolizes as a K, and defined as the maximum population size that a particular environment can sustain
  - - - Density dependent
        
        processes occur when population growth rates are regulated by the density of a population
        
        factors include competition, predation, disease, Territorial, Intruistic Factors and Toxic Wastes
      - Density independent
        
        Ex.) an earthquake killing off a population
        
        Any factor limiting the size of a population whose effect is not dependent on the number of individuals in the population.
  - - - Demographic Transition
        
        the movement from high birth rates toward low birth and death rates toward low birth and death rates, which tends to accompany industrialization and improved living conditions
      - 2 possible configurations for a stable population:
        
        0 population growth = Low birth rate - Low death rate
        
        0 population growth = High birth rate - High death rate
    - - defined as the relative number of individuals of each age in the population
    - - The global population is now than 7.2 billion people and is increasing by about 78 million each year
      - The rate of growth began to slow down during the 1960s
      - In 1650, about 500 million people inhabited earth and our population doubled to a billion within the next 2 decades and doubled again to 2 billion in 1930 and doubled again to 4 billion in 1945
    - - Life expectancy at birth
        
        the predicted length of life at birth, vary widely in different countries
      - Although global life expectancy has been increasing since about 1950, it has recently dropped in a number of regions, including countries of the former Soviet Union and in sub-Saharan Africa
      - Infant Morality
        
        the number of infant deaths per 1000 live births
    - - population ecologists project a global population of approximately 8.1-10.6 billion people in 2050
    - - Ecological Footprint
        
        defined as a concept that summarizes that aggregate land and water area required by each person, city, or nation to produce all the resources it consumes and to absorb all the waste it generates
- - - - defined as an innate typically fixed pattern of behavior in animals in response to certain stimuli. It is also anything you have from Day 1
      - Ex.) A newborn baby holding on a mother's hand (grasping reflex)
      - Ex.) When a Hognose snake is born, they will spit on a certain threat and if the threat gets too close, it will turn upside down, it's head will get thrown back, it tongue's come out and it will smell like dead decayng flesh
    - - defined as a sequence of unlearned acts directly linked into a simple stimulus
      - Ex.) A goose will try to push any egg-shaped object, such as a golf ball, if it is placed near the nest.
    - - defined as any kind of phase-sensitive learning that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior
      - Ex.) In Geese, they will follow their mother all around until they become older
    - - defined as a principle that states that ideas and experiences reinforce each other and can be linked to one another
      - Ex.) When a dog hears a bell ringing, Pavlov will give him some meat powder and measure dog spit. (Associate ringing the bell with eating)
    - - defined as is trying a method, observing if it works, and if it doesn't trying a new method
      - Ex.) A mouse in a cage, when it sees a green light, it pulls down a lever and food come out (teach complex behavior)
    - - defined as a learning process wherein there is a decrease in response to a stimulus after being repeatedly exposed to it
      - Ex.) a new sound in your environment, such as a bark of a dog, may initially draw your attention or even become distracting
    - - Ex.) A person who sticks it's tongue out and the monkey that he's holding will learn to mirror it and the monkey sticks it's tongue out
      - defined as learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others
    - - is a type of learning or problem solving that happens all-of-a-sudden through understanding the relationships of various parts of a problem rather than through trial and error
      - Ex.) There are boxes laying around. A monkey is trying to solve on how to reach a banana on top of the shelf, therefore he uses boxes to be able to reach the banana
  - - - defined as a sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to a simple stimulus
      - Sign Stimulus
        
        defined as the essential feature of a stimulus, which is necessary to elicit a response
    - - defined as a regular, long-distance change in location
      - Ex.) Geese flying south for the winter in order to avoid the cold and get resources
    - - defined as the specific behavior of an organism that recur with measured regularity.
      - Ex.) several birds have shown that an artificial environment with extended daylight can induce out of season migratory behavior
    - - Communication
        
        defined as the transmission and reception of signals between animals constitute, which often has a role in the proximate causation
      - Signal
        
        defined as a stimulus transmitted from one organism to another
    - - Fruit fly courtship constitutes a stimulus-response chain, in which the response to each stimulus is itself th stimulus for the next behavior
      - 4 common modes of animal communication
        
        Visual
        
        Chemical
        
        Auditory
        
        Tactile
      - In general, the form of communication that evolves is closely related to an animal's lifestyle and environment
        
        Ex.) Most terrestrial mammals are nocturnal, which makes visual displays relatively ineffective, instead, these species use olfactory, and auditory signals
        
        Ex.) Humans like birds use primarily visual and auditory communication
        
        Ex.) Waggle dance performed when food is distant
    - - Animals that communicate through odors or tastes emit chemical substance
      - Ex.) pheromones are the basis for the chemical communication in fruit fly courtsip
  - - - Innate behavior
        
        defined as behavior that is developmentally fixed
      - Cross-fostering study
        
        defined as the young of one species are placed in the care of adults from another species in the same or a similar environment
      - Twin study
        
        defined as in which researchers compare the behavior of identical twins raised apart with the behavior of those raised in the same household
    - - defined as the modification of behavior as a result of specific experiences
    - - defined as the establishment of a long lasting behavioral response to a particular individual or object
      - Sensitive Period
        
        defined as a time or stage in a person's development when they are more responsive to certain stimuli and quicker to learn particular skills.
    - - Cognitive maps
        
        defined as a representation in an animal's nervous system of the spacial relationships between objects in it's surroundings
      - Spatial learning
        
        defined as the establishment of a memory that reflects the environment's spacial structure
    - - defined as the ability to associate one environmental feature with another
      - Ex.) having ingested and vomited a monarch butterfly, a blue jay has probably learned to avoid this species
    - - Cognition
        
        defined as the process of knowing that involves awareness, reasoning, recollection, and judgment
      - Problem solving
        
        defined as the cognitive activity of devising a method to proceed from one state to another in the face of real or apparent obstacles
    - - First stage is when the sparrow first hears the son
        
        Then it memorizes the song while hearing it from other white-crowned sparrows sing
        
        Sensitive period is when a white-crowned sparrow memorizes the song
    - - defined as when animals learn to solve problems by observing the behavior of other individuals
      - Culture
        
        a system of information transfer to social learning or teaching that influences the behavior of individuals in a population
  - - - The fruit fly allows us to examine one way that foraging behavior might have evolved
        
        foraging, includes not only eating but also any activities an animal uses to search for, recognize, and capture food items
      - At a low population density, short distance foraging yields sufficient food, while long-distance foraging would result in unnecessary energy expenditure
        
        Thus, an interpretable evolutionary change in behavior. occurred
    - - defined as natural selection should favor a foraging behavior that minimizes the costs of foraging and maximizes the costs of foraging and maximizes the benefits
    - - seeking or attracting mates
      - choosing among potential mates
      - Caring for offspring
      - Competing for mates
    - - Monogamous
        
        defined as one male mating with one female
      - Polygamous
        
        defined as an individual of one sex mating with several of the other
    - - a male that stays with and helps a single mate may have more viable offspring than it would by going off to seek additional mates
      - Certainty of paternity
        
        the degree to which a putative parent can be certain that he, she, or it is the parent of an offspring
    - - Mate choice by females
        
        a female whose mate choice is a healthy male is likely to produce more offspring
        
        Mate-choice copying
        
        defined as a behavior in which individuals in a population copy the mate choice of others
        
        also known as Intersexual selection
        
        Mate preferences of females may play a central role in the evolution of male behavior and anatomy through intersexual selection
      - Male Competition for Mates
        
        Male competition for mates can reduce variation among males
        
        also known as Intrasexual selection
        
        Agonistic behavior
        
        defined as is any social behavior related to fighting
    - - Game theory
        
        defined as it evaluates alternative strategies in situations where the outcome depends on the strategies of all the individuals involved
  - - - Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
        
        this peptide is released during mating and binds to a specific receptor in the central nervous system
      - Differences in behavior arise not from gene inactivation, but from variation in the activity or amount of a gene product
    - - Over hundreds or thousand of generations, the capacity to recognize the slugs as prey to snakes increased in frequency in the coastal population
      - The marked variation in behavior observed today between the coastal and inland populations may be evidence of this past evolutionary changed
    - - defined as a behavior that reduces and animal's individual fitness but increases the fitness of other individuals in the population
    - - Coefficient of relativeness
        
        defined as the mean number of genes shared between two related individuals
      - Hamilton's rule
        
        defined that specifies the conditions under which reproductive altruism evolves
      - Kin selection
        
        The natural selection thus favors altruism by enhancing the reproductive success of relatives.
    - - is commonly invoked to explain altruism that occurs between unrelated humans
    - - defined as the total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and providing aid that enables other close relatives to produce offspring.
    - - Sociobiology
        
        the main premise is that certain behavioral characteristics exist because they are expressions of genes that have been perpetuated by natural selection
- - - - includes the subdisciplines of physiological, evolutionary, and behavioral ecology, is concerned with how an organism's structure, physiological, and behavior meet the challenges posed by its environment.
    - - Population
        
        is a group of individuals of the same species living in an area.
      - Population ecology
        
        analyzes factors that affect population size and how and why it changes through time
    - - Ecosystem
        
        the community of organisms in an area and the physical factors with which those organisms interact
      - Ecosystem ecology emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling between organisms and the environment
    - - defined as a mosaic of connected ecosystems
      - Landscape ecology
        
        focuses on the factors controlling exchanges of energy, materials, and organisms across multiple ecosystems
    - - Community
        
        is a group of populations of different species in an area
      - defined as it examines how interactions between species, such as predation and competition, affect community structure and organization
    - - Biosphere
        
        the global ecosystem --- the sum of all the planet's ecosystems and landscapes
      - it examines how the regional exchange of energy and materials influences the functioning and distribution of organisms across the biosphere
    - - Earth's curved shape causes latitudinal variation in the intensity of sunlight
        
        Sunlight strikes the tropics (between 23.5 degrees north latitude and 23.5 degrees south latitude)
      - At higher latitudes, sunlight strikes Earth at an oblique angle, and thus the light energy is more diffuse on Earth's surface.
    - - At latitudes around 60 degrees north and south, the air masses again rise and release abundant precipitation
      - The high altitudes air masses, now dry, decent (tan arrows) toward Earth around 30 degrees north and south.
  - - - Distribution
        
        occurs in equatorial and subequatorial regions
      - Precipitation
        
        Tropical rain forces
        
        200-400 cm annually
        
        Tropical dry forests
        
        150-200 cm anually
        
        6 to 7 month dry seasons
      - Temperature
        
        high year round, averaging 25-29 degrees C with little seasonal variation
      - Plants
        
        There are trees, shrubs, succulent plants and herbs
      - Human Impact
        
        Many of these forests are now being cut down and converted to farmland, urban areas, and other types of land use.
      - Animals
        
        Insects, spiders and other arthropods
        
        amphibians, birds and other reptiles, mammals, and arthropods
    - - Distribution
        
        occur in bands near 30 degrees north and south latitudes in the interior of continents
      - Temperature
        
        50 degree Celsius and -30 degree Celsius
      - Animals
        
        snakes, lizards, scorpions, ants, beetles, migratory and resident birds and seed eating rodents
      - Plants
        
        Cacti, euphorbs, deeply rooted shrubs, and herbs that grow during the infrequent moist periods
      - Human Impact
        
        Urbanization and conversion to irrigated agriculture have reduced the natural biodiversity of some desserts
      - Precipitation
        
        low and highly variable, generally less than 30 cm per year
    - - Human Impact
        
        Cattle ranching and over hunting have led to declines in large-mammal populations
      - Precipitation
        
        Seasonal rainfall averages 30-50 cm per year and dry season can last to 8-9 months
      - Animals
        
        wildebeests and zebras, lions, hyenas, termites, grazing mammals during seasonal droughts
      - Temperature
        
        24-25 degrees Celsius and more seasonal variation than tropical forests
      - Plants
        
        trees with small leaves, grasses and forbs
      - Distribution
        
        occurs in equatorial and subequatorial regions
  - - - Plants
        
        shrubs, small trees, many kinds of grasses and herbs
      - Animals
        
        deer, goats, amphibians, birds and other reptiles, and insects
      - Precipitation
        
        Rainy winters and dry summers and within the range of 30-50 cm
      - Temperature
        
        Fall, winter, and sprring are cool, with average temp in the range of 10-12 degree Celsius. Average summer temp can reach 30 degrees Celsius and can exceed 40 degrees Celsius
      - Human Impact
        
        Humans contribute to the fires that sweep across the chaparrel
      - Distribution
        
        North America, matorral in Spain and Chile, garigue, and maquis, in southern France, and fynbos in South Africa
    - - Plants
        
        grasses, forbs, which vary in height from a few cementers to 2 maters
      - Distribution
        
        South Africa, Hungary, Argentina, Uruguay, Russia, North America
      - Human Impact
        
        Northern coniferous forests are being logged at an alarming rate, and the old-grouth stands of these trees may soon disappear
      - Precipitation
        
        Averages betwen 30 and 100 cm. Periodic drough is common
      - Temperature
        
        -10 degrees Celsius and 30 degrees Celsius
      - Animals
        
        Bisons, wild horses, and prairie dogs in North America
    - - Distribution
        
        North America and Eurasia to the edge of the arctic tundra, the northern coniferous forests, or taiga
      - Human Impact
        
        Northern coniferous forests are being logged at an alarming rate, and the old-growth stands of these trees may soon disappear
      - Precipitation
        
        30 to 70 cm, and periodic droughts are common and 300 cm of annual precipitation
      - Temperature
        
        from 50 degrees Celsius in winter to over 20 degrees Celsius in summer
      - Animals
        
        migratory birds, moose, brown bears, and Siberian tigers
      - Plants
        
        cone bearing trees, such as pine, spruce, fir, and hemlock. There are also a diversity of plants in the shrub and herb layers.
    - - Animals
        
        Mammals, birds, and insects
      - Plants
        
        understory trees, a shrub layer, and herb layer and deciduous trees
      - Temperature
        
        0 degrees Celsius in winter and 35 degrees Celsius in the summer
      - Human impact
        
        Clearing for agriculture and urban development
      - Precipitation
        
        average from 70-200 cm annually
      - Distribution
        
        found mainly at midlatitudes in the Northern hemisphere, with smaller areas in Chile, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand
    - - Animals
        
        Large glaze musk oxen, bears wolves, and foxes
      - Precipitation
        
        averages from 20-60 cm annually in arctic tundra by may exceed 100 cm in alpine tundra
      - Temperature
        
        average below -30 degrees Celsius and summer temperatures generally average less than 10 degrees Celsius
      - Plants
        
        mixture of mosses, grasses, and forbs, dwarf shrubs, and trees and lichens
      - Human Impact
        
        Tundra is sparsely settled but has become the focus
      - Distribution
        
        areas of the Arctic, amounting to 20% of earth's land surface.
  - - - Physical Environment
        
        Head-water streams are genetically cold, clear swift and turbulent The water is generally warmer and more turbid because of suspended sediment
      - Chemical Environment
        
        Downstream water may also contain substantial oxygen, except where there has been organic enrichment
    - - Physical Environment
        
        Seawater flows up the estuary channel during a rising tide and flows back down during falling tide.
      - Chemical Environment
        
        Nutrients from the river make estuaries, like wetlands, among the most productive biomes
    - - Physical Environment
        
        habitat that is inundated by water at least some of the time and that support plants adapted to water-saturated soil
      - Chemical Environment
        
        Both water and the soil are periodically low in dissolved oxygen.
        
        high capacity to filter dissolved nutrients and chemical pollutants
    - - Physical Environment
        
        is periodically submerged and exposed by the tides, twice daily on most marine shores
      - Chemical Environment
        
        Oxygen and nutrient levels are generally high and are renewed with each turn of the tides
    - - Physical Environment
        
        ponds a few square meters in area to lakes covering thousands of square kilometres
        
        Tropical lowland lakes have a thermoline year-round
      - Chemical Environment
        
        Oligotrophic lakes
        
        tend to be nutrient-poor and genetically oxygen rich
        
        Eutrophic lakes
        
        are nutrient-rich and often depleted of oxygen in the deepest zone in summer and if covered with ice cream.
    - - Chemical Environment
        
        Some tropicals areas of the oceanic pelagic zone have lower nutrient concentrations than temperature oceans
      - Physical Environment
        
        is a vast realm of open blue water, constantly mixed by wind driven oceanic currents
    - - Chemical Environment
        
        Corals require high oxygen levels and are excluded by high inputs of fresh water and nutrients
      - Physical Environment
        
        are formed largely from the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals
    - - Physical Environment
        
        consists of the seafloor below the surface waters of the coastal or neritic, zone and the offshore pelagic zone.
      - Chemical Environment
        
        Except in areas of organic enrichment, oxygen is usually present at sufficient concentrations to support diverse animal life