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THE ENGLISH AUXILIARY SYSTEM - Coggle Diagram
THE ENGLISH AUXILIARY SYSTEM
BASICS
LIST OF AUXILIARIES
MODALS
Can / Could
May / Might
Will
Shall / Should
Must
Ought
Need
Dare
[%use]
Do
OTHER
Have
Be
DUAL CATEGORISATION
Need
Dare
Have
Do
[%use]
SYNTAX
AUXILIARIES VS. MAIN VERBS (Distributional Properties)
Negation
Aux: Negation immediately follows auxiliary
MV: Negation can't immediately follow main verb
Do support + MV non-finite form
Exception = when a constituent is negated c.f. whole sentence
Adverbs & Quantifiers
Aux: Generally precede adverbs and quantifiers, but can occur after
MV: Must occur after frequency adverbs and quantifiers
Adverbs: modal (probably, certainly) and frequency (often, always, never)
Quantifiers: All
Inversion (Subj-Aux)
Other stylistically marked contexts
Clauses with initial negative constituent negating whole clause
Clauses modified by 'only'
Clauses with initial constituent modified by 'so'.'such'
Conditional clauses without 'if'
Exclamatives (Inversion = optional in this case)
E.g. direct questions, interrogative questions
Aux: Do-support is impossible
MV: Do-support if there is no Aux
Conclusion: in questions + other constructions...
Auxiliaries invert with subject
Main verbs always stay on right of subject
Code
Can do this for Auxiliaries but not MVs
E.g. He has seen it and I have too
Dual Categorisation
Do
Have
Dare - more commonly MV
Need - more commonly MV
%Use - much more commonly MV
TYPES OF AUXILIARIES
Modal (+ 'Do') vs. Have / Be
Ordering Restrictions
Modals + Do = always first position
Order = Modal - Have (perfect) - Be (progressive) - Be (passive)
Combinatory Restrictions
Can be more than one occurrence of have / be in a sentence
Modals are mutually exclusive (as so is 'do')
Core vs. Non-Core
Core = Auxiliary + Main Verb
Non-Core = when Auxiliary is used alone
Is
Have
Would
SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS
Simple Declarative Clauses
Modals & 'Do': Always in I, always finite
Be / Have: begin in V and can be raised to I if finite. Select VP as complement
MV: Always in V. Inflection lowered from I-V
Interrogative Clauses
Questions with Auxiliary
Modals: I - C
Be / Have: V - I, I - C
Questions without Auxiliary
Do-support - do inserted under I
I - C movement
MORPHOLOGY
HAVE - 4 forms (core use)
Finite & Non-Finite possible
Present tense
Bare form - 'Have'
Form ending in -s (3rd person singular, names, numbers): 'Has'
Other inflected forms
Gerund - 'Having'
Past tense - 'Had'
Past Participle - 'Had' (Not possible in core use)
DO - 3 forms
3rd Person Singular - 'Does'
Base form for other persons / numbers in present - 'Do'
Past Tense - 'Did'
Be - 8 Forms
Present Tense x 3: 'Am' 'Are' 'Is'
Past Tense x 2: 'Was' 'Were'
Gerund: 'Being'
Past Participle: 'Been'
MODALS - 1 or 2 forms
Present Tense
Past Tense
No...
3rd Person Singular Agreement
Non-finite forms
Past Participle
Complement Selection...
Modals & Do select bare non-finite form
'Be' selects past participle or gerund
'Have' selects past participle
PHONOLOGY & MORPHOPHONOLOGY
Emphatic Polarity
Possible with Aux.
When you deny a negative proposition by stressing an Aux.
MV can't - need do-support
ALLOMORPHY: found in 3 main contexts...
Weak Forms
Aux = generally unstressed in connected speech
Schwa replaces vowel or vowel deleted
Can't weaken when in clause-final position or emphasis
Reduced Forms
Reduced allomorphs merge with adjacent word
Examples...
High restriction: are, am, have, will
Reduction possible after subject pronoun
I'm, You're, I'll. I've, etc.
Medium restriction: had, would
Can come after DPs
Last sound of DP must be a vowel
He'd, Mary'd, Mary & Sue'd, etc.
Low restriction: is, has
Possible after any DP, even wh- words and in C position
Has allomorphic variation --> phonologically conditioned allomorphy
The car's, neither Gloria nor Godfrey's, who's, etc.
Restriction for ALL = no reduction if syntactic gap or stress
Forms that co-occur with reduction of 'not'
Restrictions
Can't attach to 'may' or 'am'
No double contractions
Attaching reduced form of 'not' can create an allomorph of the Auxiliary
SEMANTIC & PRAGMATICS