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English Morphology (Words and woed formation process (Borrowing (Example…
English Morphology
Words and woed formation process
Systematic word-formation processes that take place across human languages
New words are always created and added to the lexicon of the language
The most productive process of word formation in a language is the use of derivational morphemes to form new words from already existing forms
Conversion
The use of one word from its original grammatical category to another category
Change word classes,meaning not chang form
Example
the word must is a verb (as in “You must attend classes regularly"
it can also be used as a noun as in “Class attendance is a must”
Change of function of the word
Example
bag - to bag
back - to back
Borrowing
borrowing words from foreign languages
Most of the loan words are nouns
taken many English words into their dictionaries
Example
Latin
agenda, p.m., a.m., sponsor
Greek
pneumonia, panorama, psychoanalysis
french
bureau, café, chauffeur
Sanskrit
mahatma, nirvana, musk
Hindi
shampoo, yoga, pundit
Way of borrowing
Through oral speech
Through written speech
Borrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between two language communities
Types of borrowing
Direct borrowing
Core
Cuktural
Therapeutic
Indirect / Less direct borrowing
Loan Shift
Loan blends & hybrids
Loan translation
Back - Formation
Taking off what looks like a typical affix in the language
Example
N -V
option - opt
emotion - emote
V comes after N
Types of word
Abstract Nouns
diagonse v. - diagnosis n.
Adjectives
drowse v. - drowsy a.
Agential Nouns
rove v. - rover n.
Compounding
Combining two or more words together to form a new complex word
post + card - postcard
book + case - bookcase
Antonyms
opposite meaning
Synonyms
same meaning
Homonyms
same sound but different meaning
Put together 2 words to create a new word with different meaning
can draw a picture for each word
Coinage
Invention of totally new words
Usually involves the extension of a product’s name from a specific reference to a more general one
All social life / domains of our society
Arts and entertainment, technology, politics, health and fitness, social relationships, food, economy, and advertising
Example
Netbook
Small laptop computer which weighs less than 3 pounds and has a 7 to 10 inch screen
Notspot
An area where there is slow internet access or no connection at all
Clipping
Word formed by dropping one or more syllables from a longer word or phrase with no change in meaning
fax from facsimile
gym from gymnasium
lab from laboratory
cutting a part off the orginal and using what remains intead
gas - gasoline
bus - monibus
using words precisely and conveniently
radar - radio direction finding and range
Common types
Front Clipping
plane - aeroplane, airplane
Back Clipping
doc - doctor
Front and Back Clipping
fridge - re`frigerator,
Phrase Clipping
daily - daily paper
Eponyms
A word based on or derived from proper names or things
Expmles
Sandwich = Celcius
Extension as metaphor
extensions of meaning are metaphors
Example
the grapes // the grapevine
Chair
for sit
In a meeting, hence to chair,
Acronyms
Name for a word formed from the first letters of each word in a phrase
Example
FBI : Federal Bureau of Investigation
GPA : Grade Point Average
Blending
blending only parts of the words
Example
smoke + fog = smog
motor + hotel = motel
Sound and shapes: The interface between morphology and phonology
Sound and Shape
structure of words often influences their phonological shape
Boundary Marker
( . )syllable boundary
( = ) verbal prefix boundary
( + )morpheme boundary
( ll ) phonological phrase boundary
( # ) word boundary
Identifying boundaries
he morpheme boundary proper (+), or with the word boundary (#)
Types of phonological rules
LEXICAL RULE
structure-dependent rules
POSTLEXICAL RULE
those that are insensitive to word boundaries, and word ‘across the board
Aspiration
stress on the following vowel, a word boundary preceding the voiceless stop, and a fricative preceding the voiceless stop
Example
mistime
The peculiarity of -ize
N - V
not used 3 syllable
rules K - s
The comparative -er
before add -er a morpheme boundary
er1, which is neutral and g-dropping takes place before it
er2, which is lexical and g-dropping does not take place before it
The velar softening and -ic
ize
-K
-s
Word and syllable boundaries
separate by syllable
The status of lexical rules
crimin + al and animal are not different from the viewpoint of phonology
The remaining of paradoxes
remain some unslovable paradoxes. Some of them will be listed here, without any attempt at an explanation
Example
sourer and sourest
Lexeme Formation Affixes
Affiexes
Add morpheme to a word
Change funcation or meaning
Perfixes
add before root word
Change meaning
Suffix
Add after a root word
Change part of speech
The bround morpheme are all suffix
Root
Basic word
Basic meaning
Add affixes (change meaning)
Example
Reopen
open is root word
Base word
root word combine to word for make group of word
Example
act = root
React = Base word
Reacting ( word + suffixes)
Derivational
add forms
to create separate word
Change word by 3 way
Change part of speech
change meaning
Change of both
Example
ic : N - ADJ
alcohol
ism : N - N
Alcohol - Alcoholism
able : V - ADJ
read - readable
Inflecttional
Change form not chang meaning
8 kind
-s Plural
-'s Possessive
-er comparative
-est superlative
-s 3rd person
-ed past tense
-ing progressive
-en past participle
Bound base
can stand alone as word
Not prefixes or suffixes
pathology
psychopath
dermatitis
endoderm
they can occur before or after another bound base
not all bound base are free in their placement
Type of Affixes
Perfixes
add before root word
Infixes
add inside root word
Suffixes
add after a root word
Personal affixes
suffixes -er
writer
runner
Negative and privative affixes
add the meaning "not"
Example
un : unhappy
in : inattentive
non : non-functional
Privative affixes
meaning something like "with out"
Example
less : hopless
Prepositional affixes
meaning time
Example
out : outrun
over : overfill
Quantitative affixes
ful : helpful
multi : multifaceted
Evaluative affixes
let : booklet
Word formation rules
Verd formation
ize : N - V
Example
American - Americanize
Adverb formation
ly : adj. - adv.
Example
Easy - Easily
Noun formation
er/ment/ation : V - N
Example
Open - Opener
Amaze - Amazement
Organize - Organizetion
Adjective Formation
y/ic : N - ADJ
Example
Dirt - Dirty
Atom - Atomic
Opposites
Prefixes add to the front of word can opposites meaning
Example
Un + happy = Unhappy
Word Structure
Prefixes + Root + Suffix
Unhappiness
Un = Prefixes
Happy = Root
ness = Suffix
Type of morpheme
Free Morpheme
stan alone
Bound Morpheme
Not stan alone
Divided and Undivided
Unaware
un + aware
measurement
measure + ment
Morphology
Morpheme
As the smallest unit of the language that has its own meaning
Definition of word
Have some prefix and suffix
Can stand alone in language
What
Smallest meaningful units in a language.
Focused on the forms
Sound + Word family (from)
Context of word
From
Function
Structure
Simple or Simplex word
Have meaning in that word
Only 1 morpheme
Example
just
Giraffe
Oops
Complex word
More than 1 morpheme
Example
Prewash
Blackboard
opposition
Word tokens
Count every word
Word types
Not counting word that have same meaning
Word lexemes
One meaning/One word count only 1 time
Word formation
Inflection
Change from not change meaning
Word formation that expresses grammatical distinctions
Derivation
3 type (Change the word by 3way)
Change part of speech
Chang of meaning
Chang of both
Derivation
Relationship between lexemes
Derivation
The suffix -ance is not one of the small class of suffixs whose use is tightly determinded by grammar
Perform
Performs
Perfomed
performance
lexem
Cat / Cats
lexem = cat
Performace / Performances
lexem = Performance
How lexemes can be related
many way
Synonymy
Auberging : Eggplant
same meaning
Homonymy
Row : Row
same sound
Word classes and Conversion
Word class and Conversion
V. = doing word
N. = thing words
ADJ. = describing words
Example
Perform VS Performance
not same word class
4 = Perform / Performed / Perfroms / Perfroming
2 = Perfomance / Performances
My great - uncle william resemble a giraffe.
resemble
Describe = him
Describe word : Tall / Interesting
set form = resembles / resrmbled / resembling / resrmble
Part of speech
Traditional
Lexical categories
Linguist
Necessary to distinguish nominal and verbal syntactic structure
ADJ. / N. / V. etc
English particalar
norminal counterpart
add to the basic form of the verb
Example
ADV - ADJ
simple or monomorpheme adv
morpheme without containing
common adv that are formed by conersion
-ly
N - N
-let
-ess
-ship
-ian
N - other word classes
ity = purith / ferocith
ness = tallness / goodness
ism = conservatism
Adj - Adj
ish = smallish / romotish
un = unhappy / unsure
in = intangible
il = illegal
ir = irresponsible
im = impossible
Adj - other word classes
able = readable / watchable
ant = expectant / conversant
ent = repellent
ive = repulsive
ful = joyful / hopeful / helpful
less = joyless / meaningless
al = normal / personal
isb = boyisb / disbelive
V -V
re = reenter / repaint
un = untie / untangle
de = decompose / desensitise
dis = disentangle / disbelieve
V - other word classes
de = debuy / deforest
ise = organise / terrorise
( i ) fy = beautify / petrify
Conclusion
no means exhaustively the wide variety of takes that derivtion can play
In this resn pect derivation contrasts with inflection in EnglishBy Comparison with most other europea language
English is at least as rich as French and German in its derivational resources
Inflection
Introduction of Inflection
Changes the form of lexemes
they fit into different grammatical contexts
Number (sigual Vs plural)
person ( first/second/third)
Tense (past/present/future)
other distinction as well
Introduction of English
singular and plural is marked on nouns
English has both regular and irregular inflections
little inflection
old english had three genders
masuline - stone
feminine - gift
neuter - ship
Paradigm
all of the different inflectional form of
particuler lexem or class of lexemes
Inflectional classes
not all nouns or verbs may inflect in exactly the same way
Suppletion or syncretism
one or more of inflection forms
buil on a base
relationships between inflected forms in a paradigm
Inflection and productivity
rules of inflection are almost fully productive
Inflection VS Derivation
never changes category VS sometimes changes category
add grammatical meaning VS often add lexical meaning
important to syntax VS produces new lexmes
usually fully productive VS can rang from unproductive to fully productive
Morpheme and their Compositions
Morpheme
meaning
the smaiiest unit of a word with meaning
Configuration
elements
main unit
Separation
{ }
Example
Gentlemanliness
{Gentle}+{man}+{ly}+{neaa}
Single sound
1 sound may represent a morpheme
single syllable
1 word maybe more syllable
Example
Paper
1 Word
2 Syllable
Small
1 word
1 Syllable
Constant meaning
Unchaning same meaning that root word
Example
-er someone who does
Player/Teacher/Singer
Homophonous
Same sound but different from and meaning
Example
To : Two
Be : Bee
Simple Words
Free Morpheme
Stan alone
Noun
Verb
Adverb
Preposition
Bound Morpheme
Not stan alone
Adverb (iy)
Affixes
Perfixes
add in front chang meaning
Suffixes
ass behind change part of speech
Infixes
In the middle
Example
Sisters - in - law
now - a - days
Bround base
Not meaningful
Have meaning when combined with other morpheme
Example
Cranberry
"Cran" No meaning
Cran + berry = Cranberry have meaning
All affiex is bround base but all bround morpheme not affixes
Morph
Sound of word
sound that the opportunity arises in morpheme
Allomorph
[ ]
explain the morph
Type
Additive
adding suffies
something is added to a word
Example
neeb = needed
Replacive
A sound is used to replace another sound in
Example
Drink = Drank
Suppletive
some difference in meaning
Complete in the shpe of a word
Example
Go = went
Zero
No chang in the shape of a word