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Chapter 51-53 (Chapter 52 (Concept 52.1 (Climate:long term pervailing…

- - - - Population Ecology:grup of individuals of the same species, what affect the population
        
        Community Ecolgy:examins how the interaction among species effect community organization
        
        Ecosystem Ecolgy:energy flow and chemeicla cycle between enviorment and organism.
        
        Landcape Ecology:focuses of exchange of enegry,material ,orgaism
        
        Global Ecolgy:region exchange of material influences the function and distibution or organism
        
        Concerns how different populations interact, such as predation and competition
        
        Concerns a population of organisms from the same species and its challenges
  - - - infuences the dirtibution of organism on land
      - could be modifis by large bodies of water and mountains
        
        mountains-when warm air-realeases moister
        
        water-along the cost of continenet by heat or cooling overling air masses that pass across the land
      - microclimate:very fine,localized pathern
        
        Example:forest trees moderate the microclimate below
        
        lower-laying is usally wetter than higher ground
    - - Earths tilyes axis of rotation and passage around the sun causes season cycle
        
        Seasons are determined by the Earth's tilted axis and directed sunlight
        
        Longitude is the angular distance around the globe going either East or West.
        
        Latitude is the angular distance from the equator going either North or South
      - climate change-a directional change to the global climate that lasts 3 decades or more.
        
        Example:Earth has warmed since 1900
        
        As the climate warmed and the glaciers retreat, trees species distribution expands northward
        
        some species are facing a shortage of suitable replacment habit, while other cannot migrate quickly enough.
  - - - climae and terrestial: grasslands are typically drier than either find of forest
        
        Deserts are drier still
        
        are named for major physical or climate features and fo theri predominant vegetation.
        
        charcterized by microorganisms,fungi, and animals.
        
        Ecotone:are of integration between 2 territorial
      - Factors other than mean tempeture and precipitation...
        
        also play a role in determining where biomes exist.
      - are dynamic, and disturbance rather than stability.
        
        Disturbance:is an event such as a storm, fire, or human activity that changes a community
        
        disturbance causes removing organism and altering resource availability.
        
        biomes are often patchy,containing several different communities in a single are.
  - - - characterized primary ontheri physical and chemical enviorment
      - show less latitudinal variation
      - Ocean tempeture has a major effect on global climate and wind patterns
      - ZONATION:
        
        Photic zone:is the region where there is sufficient light for photosynthesis.
        
        Aphotic zone: is where little light penetrates
        
        Abyssal zone:lies deep in the aphotic sone
        
        Benthic zone:at the bottom of all aquatic zone.
        
        In the benthic zone it is made up of organisms called benthos
        
        Example of organisms in the photic zone are planktons
        
        Thermocline:seperate the warm upper layer from the cold bottom layer.
        
        Turnover:oxegenated water is send to the bottom while nutrition water is brought to the top.
      - Oceans can heat and cool overlaying layers of air mass, mountains can influence airflow into higher or lower altitudes, and large scale global climate change can all effect climate.
  - - - Bistribution of specieas are effected by...
        
        Biotic example:
        
        the presence or absence of polinator, food reasources, parasites, pathogens, and competing organisms
        
        Abiotic:tempeture, sunlight, oxygen soil.
        
        they may either blur or accentuate regional distinction.
        
        Too little sunlight could limit the disrtibution of photosyntehtic species.
        
        Salt conceentration of water in the enviorment affects the water balance of organisms through osmisis.
        
        water affects oxygen avaliability in aquatic enviorment and in flooded soil.
        
        Tempeture:climate change has already caused hundred of species to alter geographic ranges
        
        the pH, mineral composition, and physical structure of rock and soil limit the distribution of plant and herbivores
        
        Dispersal:the movement of individuals or gametes away from that area of origin.
        
        when organism reach an are where they do not exist (range extension)
        
        transparetn plant, must survive and reproduce to be sucessful.
        
        Certain organisms may be found globally due to reproductive and dispersal patterns and range.
- - - - effected by the same abiotic and biotic factors.
        
        Demograpgy:is the study of these vital statitic of population and how they change over time
        
        3 survivory curces
        
        I) humans, bears, and large mammals
        
        II) birds and rodents
        
        III)trees, marine invertebrates, and fish
      - Destiny:number of individuals per unit area(volume)
        
        Dispersion:is the pattern of spacing amond individuals within the boundries
        
        Example is counting a muber of a animals from an airplane
        
        Clumped-individuals are arranged in patches
        
        Example:plants are often clumperwher soil favors growth
        
        uniform-evenly spaced
        
        can result of antagoninst social interaction, such as territorialitu
        
        randome-the position of each individual is independent
        
        Example-plant are randomly windblown seed.
        
        something ecologist count the number of oak trees in a 100 by100m area then estimate the rest
        
        somthines they ude the mark-recapture method
        
        is not a static property but changes as individuals are added and removed, facorts that effect population size
        
        emigration-factors that remove individuals from a population are death
        
        immigration- new individuals in an area
        
        Amount of birth
        
        amount of death
    - - change in population size=birth+immigrants-death-emigrants
        
        change in populations size/time interval= birth-deaths
        
        R=represents the diffrence betweeen number of birth and death
        
        R=change in population size/ time interval
        
        R= birth -death
        
        per capita-per individual
        
        per capita change in population=per capita change(change in population size)
        
        change in population/time interval=per capita chnange(population size)
        
        Exponenetial grwoth-population that experiences an increase in size by a constant porportion each time.
        
        1 more item...
  - - - Carrying capacity:(k)-max population size in an enviiorement
        
        logistic population growth:the per capita rate of population approches zero s the population size nears (K).
        
        K-N is the number of additional individual the enviorment can support
        
        dN/dt=rN (k-N)/K
        
        when N equal K the population stops growing
        
        produces an S-shaped growth curve when population size is plotted.
        
        Examples: such as Paramecium, yeast, beacteria
        
        when the per capita rate of population growth approaches zero as the population size nears the carrying capacity.
        
        Energy,shelter, nutrients,and shelter could all be limited
  - - - develops life history
        
        how often the organisms reproduce
        
        semelparity:one shot pattern of big bang reproduction
        
        Example-coho salmon and agave
        
        iteroparity:repeating reproduction
        
        Example-loggerhead turtles who produce about 300 eggs every 2-3 yars
        
        Includs humans
        
        how many offspring are produced per reproductive.
        
        "Trade-off"-occurs because organism do not haave acess to unlimited reasources.
        
        selective pressure can influence trade-off between the number and size
        
        K-selection:selection for traits that are advantageous at high densities
        
        limit imposed by their reasources
        
        r-selection:selection for traits that macimize reproductuve sucess in low densities
        
        individuals face little competition
        
        when reproduction begins
        
        loggerhead turtle is 30 years old when it first crawls onto a beach to lay eggs
  - - - Density dependent:death and birth rate that falls and increases
      - Density independent:birth/death rate that does not change with population density
        
        effected by birth rate
        
        effected by death rate
    - - helps explain why populations stop growing
        
        Competion for reasources-Increasing population density intensifies competition for nutrients, reducing reproductive rates.
        
        Disease- If the transmission rate of a disease increases as a population becomes more crowded, then the disease’s impact is density dependent.
        
        Predation can be an important cause of density-dependent mortality
        
        Territoriality can limit population density when space becomes the resource for which individuals compete
        
        Intrinsic physiological factors can regulate population size.
        
        The ethanol that accumulates in the wine is toxic to yeasts and contributes to density-dependent regulation of yeast population size
    - - fluctuate by unpredictable intervals
      - others undergo boom- and burst cycle
      - immagration and emigration also influences population, forming a metapopulation.
        
        an individuals ablilty to move between populations depend on a number of factors
  - - - our population has grown faster than exponenetial growth, which ahs a constant rate of increase and hence a constant double hence
        
        configuration fro a stable population
        
        zero population growth=high birth rate-high death rate
        
        Demographic transition:movement from high birth and death rate toward low birth and day rates
        
        zero population growth=low birth rate-low death rate
      - Age structurer-affect population growth
        
        commonly graphed as a pyramids
    - - A typical ecological footprint for a person in the United States is 8 gha(global hectare).
- - - - Example:releasing a sent to make its territory.
      - Is an essential part of acquiring nutrients and finding a partner for sexual reproduction
    - - Example:territotial response to male stickleback(attack)
      - unchangable
        
        which is a sign stimulus
        
        trigger behavior
    - - some use the sun,others the North star, and other sense.
      - circadian clock: is significant for navigation by some migrting specieas.
        
        circannual rhythms:yearly cycle of seasons
        
        Both methods influenced by the period of daylight and darkness
    - - Signal:stimulus transmitted from 1 organism to another
      - Communication: transmission and reception of sigh between animals.
        
        communication that volves is closley related to animals lifestyle and enviorent
        
        Example: the honeybee waggle dance
        
        Pheromones:communicate through oder or teaste emit chemical sunstance
        
        Example:male silkworm have receptor that can detect the pheromes from a female.
  - - - Cross-frostering-young of 1 species are placed in the care of adult from other species in the same/similuar enviorment.
        
        Experience during development influences behavior.
        
        Learning: modification of behavior as a resylt of specific experience.
        
        contibution of boyhe nature and nurture
        
        Associative learning:the abiliy to associate one enviormental feature with another.
        
        Classic condition:an arbitrary stimulus becomes associated with a particular outcome
        
        Operant condition:trial-and-error learning
        
        Cognition learning:process knowing it involves awarness,reasoning,recollection,and judgement.
        
        Example:honeybeess were expirmented if they knoe "same" from "diffrent".
        
        problem solving
        
        *Social learning:learning through observation*
        
        Infants learn how to give the right call by observing other members of the groupand reciving social confirmation
      - Sensitive period:specific time period in development
        
        Imprinting takes plece
        
        Which is the establishmeny of a long-lasting behavior respone to a partivular individial/object.
      - Every enviorment has spatial variation
        
        spatial learning:the setablishemnt of a memeory that refects the enviorment spatial structure.
        
        wasps locate their nest by surrounding
        
        while other naimals involves cognitive map
        
        which is a representaion in an animal nervous system of the spiritial relationship between objects.
  - - - is a compromise between the benifit and the cost of obtaining food.
        
        optimal foraging model:natual selction shoulf favor a forging behavior that minimizes the cost of foragiing and maximizes the benifit.
        
        risk of predation
    - - Monogamous:one male with one female
        
        Example: young bird who cannot care for themselves
      - Polygamouse: an individual of one sex with several of others
        
        polygyny:single male and many demales
        
        polyandry:single female with mutiple males
        
        have the ability to maximize theri reproduction success
      - Promiscous:animal species with no strong pair-bond
        
        sexual dimorphism:male and female differ in apperance
        
        results from sexual selction
        
        Intrasexual selction-competion of memebers of one sex
        
        intersexual selction-member of one sex chose of the bais of member of other sex
        
        female whose mate choice is a healthy male, is likley to produce more offspring that survive to reproduce.
        
        mate choice coping:a behaviore in which individuals in a population copy the mate choice of other
        
        form of social learning
        
        male cometion for mate like the male eastern gery kangaroo
        
        may involve agonistic behavior-competion that involve which gets more reasources.
  - - - Example:male prairie voles
    - - Example: the squal grabs attention when i alarms the rest of preditor
      - When parents sacrifice, it increases the fitness of the parent because it maximizes their genetic represention.
        
        maiantained by evolution
      - According to Hamilton, the 3 key variable in an act of altruism
        
        the benefit to the recipient(B)
        
        the cost to the autuist (C)
        
        and the coefficient of relatedness (r)
        
        provides a way to measure the strength of the selctive forces favoring aultuism against the potential coat of "selfless" behavior.