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English Morphology (Unit 6 : Word and Word Processes of word-formation…
English Morphology
Unit 6 : Word and Word Processes of word-formation
Processes of word-formation
New words are always created and added to the lexicon of the language
Conversion
Use of one word from its original grammatical category to another category
Borrowing
The process of actually borrowing words from foreign languages
Ways of borrowing
Through oral speech
By immediate contact between the people
Through written speech
By indirect contact through books, etc.
Types of borrowing
Direct borrowing
Indirect / Less direct borrowing
Back-formation
Word is formed from another word by taking off what looks like a typical affix in the language
Types of words
Abstract Nouns
Agential Nouns
Adjectives
Compounding
Combining two or more words together to form a new complex word
We really know
Antonyms
Words with opposite meanings : hot,cold
Synonyms
Words with same meanings : chilly,cold
Homonyms
Words with same sound but different meanings : dear,deer
Coinage
Invention of totally new words
Clipping
Which is the shortening of a longer word, is a word formed by dropping one or more syllables from a longer word or phrase with no change in meaning
4 common types
Front Clipping : plane ← aeroplane, airplane
Back Clipping : doc ← doctor, dorm ← dormitory
Front and Back Clipping : fridge ← re`frigerator
Phrase Clipping : daily ← daily paper
Eponyms
A word based on or derived from proper names or things
Extension as Metaphor
Often enough extensions of meaning are metaphors , e.g. the grapes, the grapevine
Acronyms
An initial abbreviation that can be pronounced as a word
Blending
Another way of combining two words to form a new word
Unit 5 : Derivation
Relationship between lexemes
Variants of lexeme PERFORM
There are grammatical factors that determine the choice between perform, performs and performed
Word classes and conversion
Word classes
‘adjective’, ‘noun’, ‘verb’ and etc.
Parts of speech
Traditional terminology
Lexical categories
Many contemporary linguists
Adverbs derived from adjectives
Can change the word class of the bases to which they apply
Nouns derived from nouns
Not all derivational processes change word class
Nouns derived from members of other word classes
Nouns derived from adjectives and from verbs are extremely numerous
Adjectives derived from adjectives
Prefixes predominate
Adjectives derived from members of other word classes
Some of the processes that derive adjectives from verbs straddle the divide between derivation and inflection in a way that we have not yet encountered
Verbs derived from verbs
Unusual in that all the affixes that I will mention in it are prefixes
Verbs derived from members of other word classes
Verbs that are derived by replacing the final voiceless consonant of a noun with a voiced one
Unit 7 : Sound and Shapes : The interface between morphology and phonology
Phonological boundaries in the generative model
Applies several different kinds of boundary markers
Morpheme boundaries
Found between the morphemes (represented by ‘+’)
Verbal prefix boundaries
The verbs with a stressed light ult all contain a verbal prefix.
Word boundaries
Occur between words
The problem is that it is far from obvious
Identifying boundaries
Morpheme boundary is to be represented with the morpheme boundary proper (+), or with the word boundary (#)
Clitics
They also lack an important phonological characteristic of wordhood, stress, and the full vowel that always accompanies stress
Types of phonological rules
Aspiration
Stress on the following vowel
A word boundary preceding the voiceless stop
A fricative preceding the voiceless stop
The peculiarity of –ize
Velar softening
The comparative –er
Comparative forms
The velar softening and –ic
The status of lexical rules
Word and syllable boundaries
The remaining of paradoxes
Unslovable paradoxes
Unit 1 : What is Morphology ?
What is morpheme ?
The smallest unit of language that has its own meaning
What is word ?
One or more morphemes that can stand alone in a language
Simple or simplex
Words that consist of only one morpheme
Ex. Giraffe , Fraud , Oops
Complex
Words that are made up of more than one morpheme
Ex. Opposition , Intellectual , Prewash
What is morphology ?
Word formation
Ways new words are coined
Way forms of words are varied
Words and lexemes, types and tokens
Word tokens
Count every instance in which a word occurs in a sentence
Word types
Count a word once, no matter how many times it occurs in a sentence
Mental lexicon
Contains an enormous number of words that we can produce
Word formation rules
To create new words and understand new words when we encounter them
Unit 2 : Morpheme and Their Compositions
Free morphemes
Simple words that cannot be broken down further into meaningful units
Can stand alone as an independent, single word
Lexical and Functional morpheme
Lexical morphemes
n., v., adj. and adv.
Content words
Functional morphemes
articles, prep., conj., quantifiers and pron.
Function words
Bound morphemes
The smallest units of meaning or grammatical function that are attached to other forms to generate complex words
Cannot normally stand alone
What is morphemes ?
The minimal units of meaning or grammatical function that are used to form words
Ex. Visitors
3 morphemes
One minimal unit of meaning is Visit
Another minimal unit of meaning –or
The other minimal unit of grammatical function –s
Bound base morphemes
Not meaningful in isolation but have meaning when combined with other morphemes
Base or stem morpheme
The morpheme to which we attach an affix
Morph and allomorph and pronunciation of morphemes
Morphs
The actual forms that are used to realize phonetic realization of morphemes
Allomorphs
Different forms of the same morpheme
Type of allomorph
Additive allomorphs
Replacive allomorphs
Suppletive allomorphs
The zero allomorphs
Unit 3 : Lexeme formation - affixes
What is affix?
Affixes
Classified according to whether they are attached before or after the form to which they are added
Prefixes
Add before the form of word
Suffixes
Add after the form of word
The bound morphemes is Suffixes
Root, derivational, and inflectional morphemes
A root morpheme
The basic form to which other morphemes are attached
Derivational morphemes
Added to forms to create separate words
Inflectional morphemes
Modify the word
Affixation
Word formation rules
Prefixes and suffixes
Usually have special requirements for the sorts of bases they can attach to
Word structure
Words are more like onions
What do affixes mean?
Distinction between affixes and bound bases above, we did so on the basis of a rather vague notion of semantic robustness
Transpositional affixes
That their primary function is to change the category of their base without adding any extra meaning
To divide or not divide
Unit 4 : Inflection
Introduction of Inflection
Inflection
Changes the form of lexemes
They fit into different grammatical contexts
Inflection in English
What we have ?
English is a language that is quite poor in inflection. The distinction between singular and plural is marked on nouns
Why English has so little inflection ?
Study the history of English, you’ll find that at one time English had quite a bit more inflection than it now has
Paradigms
All of the different inflectional forms of a particular lexeme or class of lexemes
Inflectional classes
Not all nouns or verbs may inflect in exactly the same way
Suppletion
One or more of the inflected forms
Suppletion and syncretism
Relationships between inflected forms in a paradigm
Inflection and productivity
Rules of inflection are almost always fully productive
Inflection versus derivation revisited
Words that have both inflectional and derivational affixes, the derivational affixes almost always occur inside the inflectional ones